Stepwise development of laboratory resistance to DMI-fungicides in Penicillium italicum

Isolates ofPenicillium italicum with differential levels of resistance to imazalil were obtained via step-wise mass selection of conidia of the fenarimol-resistant isolate E300-3 on imazalilamended PDA. Three out of five selection steps were successful. The resistance level to imazalil of isolates acquired after the two last selection steps was on average 122 and 197. The differential level of resistance was also apparent in decay control on oranges by imazalil inoculated with the various isolates. The isolates showed a similar cross-resistance pattern to other fungicides which inhibit C-14 demethylation of sterols (DMIs), although the level of resistance to these fungicides was significantly higher. All isolates displayed negatively-correlated cross-resistance to tridemorph and dodine. Most isolates had a normal virulence on oranges. In competition experiments with mixed-inocula of the wild-type and a resistant isolate, the proportion of the wild-type increased in successive generations on untreated oranges and the proportion of the resistant isolate increased on imazalil-treated oranges. The lower competitive ability of the resistant isolate on untreated oranges may be due to a decrease in spore production as compared with the wild-type.Since isolate E300-3 was obtained in two selection steps on fenarimol-amended PDA, the isolates obtained in the last selection steps on imazalil-amended PDA may have at least five different genes for resistance to DMIs. This is consistent with resistance to DMIs being under polygenic control, with the genes involved having an additive interaction, although this is not the only possible explanation of the results.     

Sensitivities to DMI fungicides in populations of Podosphaera fusca in south central Spain

BACKGROUND: Cucurbit powdery mildew elicited by Podosphaera fusca (Fr.) U Braun & N Shishkoff limits crop production in Spain. Disease control is largely dependent on fungicides such as sterol demethylation inhibitors (DMIs). Fungicide resistance is an increasing problem in this pathogen. To overcome such risk, it is necessary to design rational control programmes based upon knowledge of field resistance. The aim of this study was to investigate the state of DMI sensitivity of Spanish P. fusca populations and provide tools for improved disease management. RESULTS: Using a leaf‐disc assay, sensitivity to fenarimol, myclobutanil and triadimenol of 50 isolates of P. fusca was analysed to determine discriminatory concentrations between sensitive and resistant isolates. As no clearly different groups of isolates could be identified, discriminatory concentrations were established on the basis of maximum fungicide field application rate, 100 mg L^?1 for the three fungicides tested. Subsequently, a survey of DMI resistance was carried out in different provinces located in the south central area of Spain during the cucurbit growing seasons in 2002, 2003 and 2004. Examination of a collection of 250 isolates revealed that 23% were resistant to fenarimol and 7% to triadimenol, the provinces of Almería, Badajoz and Murcia being the locations with the highest frequencies of resistance. By contrast, no resistance to myclobutanil was found. CONCLUSION: Results show that fenarimol and, to a lesser extent, triadimenol have become less efficient for controlling cucurbit powdery mildew in Spain. These are important observations that should lead to reconsideration of the current disease management programmes. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

The hydroxyanilide fenhexamid,a new sterol biosynthesis inhibitor fungicide efficient against the plant pathogenic fungus Botryotinia fuckeliana (Botrytis cinerea)

Fenhexamid, a recently developed botryticide, is shown here to inhibit sterol biosynthesis. When the fungus Botryotinia fuckeliana was grown in the presence of fenhexamid, the ergosterol content was reduced, and three 3‐keto compounds, 4α‐methylfecosterone, fecosterone and episterone, accumulated, suggesting an inhibition of the 3‐keto reductase involved in C‐4 demethylation. Thus, fenhexamid belongs to a new, promising class of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors not previously used in agriculture or in medicine. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influence of storage approaches on instability of propiconazole resistance in Monilinia fructicola

BACKGROUND: The long‐term preservation of interesting phenotypes in plant pathogenic fungi allows for follow‐up studies in the future. Twelve storage approaches were investigated to determine their effects on instability of propiconazole resistance for three demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicide‐resistant and two DMI‐sensitive isolates of Monilinia fructicola. They included mycelium in PDA slants under mineral oil, in PDA plugs under 10% glycerol, on dried filter paper and conidia on silica gel, each stored for 36 weeks at 4, ? 20, and ? 80 °C. RESULTS: None of the storage approaches prevented the rapid decline of EC₅₀ values for propiconazole in the three resistant isolates, and no significant differences were found among storage approaches (P = 0.787) or between storage approaches and consecutive transfers (P = 0.053). Most of the decline in resistance occurred during the first 4 weeks of storage. The DMI resistance‐associated genetic element Mona, located in the immediate upstream region of the MfCYP51 gene, was still present in the three resistant isolates after 36 weeks of storage and weekly transfers. Furthermore, the Mona element and a portion of the MfCYP51 gene, which encodes the target enzyme for DMIs, did not reveal signs of DNA methylation. Resistance to propiconazole was partially regained in resistant isolates after two growth cycles on fresh peach fruit. CONCLUSIONS: Obtained data indicate that the decline of DMI resistance in M. fructicola cannot be prevented using commonly employed storage methods at various temperatures. The number of consecutive transfers and the storage duration prior to fungicide sensitivity tests in M. fructicola should be indicated in scientific papers. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Strong resistance to the fungicide fenhexamid entails a fitness cost in Botrytis cinerea, as shown by comparisons of isogenic strains

BACKGROUND: Fenhexamid, a sterol biosynthesis inhibitor effective against Botrytis, inhibits the 3‐ketoreductase (Erg27) involved in C‐4 demethylation. Several fenhexamid‐resistant phenotypes have been detected in Botrytis cinerea populations from French vineyards. The field isolates with the highest resistance levels display amino acid changes in Erg27 (F412S, F412I or F412V). RESULTS: Fenhexamid‐resistant mutants were generated by site‐directed mutagenesis of the erg27 gene in a sensitive recipient strain to overcome the impact of different genetic backgrounds. The wild‐type erg27 allele was replaced by the three mutated alleles (erg27^F412S/I/V) by homologous recombination. These isogenic strains were shown to be fenhexamid‐resistant and were used to quantify the impact of F412 mutations on fungal fitness. Several parameters, including radial growth, the production of sclerotia and conidia, freezing resistance and aggressiveness, were quantified in laboratory conditions. Analysis of variance demonstrated significant differences between the mutant and parental strains for some characters. In particular, the mutants grew more slowly than the wild‐type strain and displayed variations in the production of sclerotia and conidia with temperature and susceptibility to freezing. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlight a moderate but significant impact of F412 mutations on the survival capacity of B. cinerea strains displaying high levels of resistance to fenhexamid in laboratory conditions, potentially limiting their dispersal and persistence, particularly in terms of overwintering, in field conditions. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mutations in the CYP51 gene correlated with changes in sensitivity to sterol 14 alpha-demethylation inhibitors in field isolates of Mycosphaerella graminicola

In France, as in many other European countries, Mycosphaerella graminicola (Fuckel) Schr?ter in Cohn (anamorph Septoria tritici), the causal agent of wheat leaf blotch, is controlled by foliar applications of fungicides. With the recent generalization of resistance to strobilurins (QoIs), reliable control is mainly dependent upon inhibitors of sterol 14 alpha-demethylation (DMIs). To date, strains with reduced sensitivity to DMIs are widespread, but disease control using members of this class of sterol biosynthesis inhibitors has not been compromised. In this study, sensitivity assays based on in vitro effects of fungicides towards germ-tube elongation allowed the characterization of seven DMI-resistant phenotypes. In four of them, cross-resistance was not observed between all tested DMIs; this characteristic concerned prochloraz, triflumizole, fluquinconazole and tebuconazole. Moreover, the highest resistant factors to most DMIs were found only in recent isolates; according to their response towards prochloraz, they were classified into two categories. Molecular studies showed that DMI resistance was associated with mutations in the CYP51 gene encoding the sterol 14 alpha-demethylase. Alterations at codons 459, 460 and 461 were related to low resistance levels, whereas, at position 381, a valine instead of an isoleucine, in combination with the previous changes, determined the highest resistance levels to all DMIs except prochloraz. Mutations in codons 316 and 317 were also found in some isolates exhibiting low resistance factors towards most DMIs.     

The effect of soil moisture content on the sorption of five sterol biosynthesis inhibiting fungicides as a function of their physicochemical properties

We investigated the sorption of five widely used sterol biosynthesis inhibitor fungicides (SBIs: flusilazole, propiconazole, epoxiconazole, fenpropimorph and prochloraz) on a loam soil to assess availability of the SBI residues that are usually left in soil after crop treatments. We focused particularly on the soil moisture content effect, which is poorly documented and is difficult to investigate under realistic conditions. SBI sorption was determined (using diuron as a reference) at two soil moisture contents (26.1% and 46.6% w/w) over a period of 3 weeks using a direct soil solution sampling method. After 24 h of contact, <1% of each applied fungicide was recovered in the soil solution. Despite their low availability in the liquid phase, long‐term sorption was observed for all the compounds, reducing concentrations in the soil solution and doubling the value of the partition coefficient. Significant effects of soil moisture on long‐term sorption were observed, depending on the properties of the chemicals and the sorption mechanisms. Wershaw's humus model (humic substances have a membrane‐like structure) was adapted to fit our observations. Low soil moisture content is assumed to modify the structure of humic substances and to generate hydrophobic surfaces, which favour sorption of hydrophobic fungicides (flusilazole, propiconazole and epoxiconazole). This effect is likely to decrease with the increase in the hydrophobic character of non‐ionic pesticides. It becomes adverse for the more hydrophilic compounds (diuron), which are more sorbed at high soil moisture content due to their higher affinity for hydrophilic regions of humus and to diffusion. Soil moisture effects are more complex when compounds are likely to be protonated in soil. Weakly basic compounds (prochloraz) may partition rapidly into the liquid‐like interior of humus at low soil moisture content but increased diffusion at high soil moisture content may cause additional sorption by ion exchange at colloid surfaces. Strongly basic compounds (fenpropimorph) may essentially adsorb due to ionic interactions with colloids, and their sorption is enhanced at high soil moisture content due to diffusion. Consequences for environmental fate and biological activity of pesticides are briefly discussed. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Evolution of fungicide resistance in the cereal eyespot fungi Tapesia yallundae and Tapesia acuformis in France

Field isolates of the cereal eyespot pathogen can be divided into two groups which are now considered as two species: Tapesia yallundae and Tapesia acuformis. In both species the first case of acquired resistance was observed with benzimidazole fungicides in the early 1980s. At the same time, a number of sterol C-14 demethylation inhibitors (DMIs), such as the imidazole prochloraz and several triazoles, including flusilazole, were introduced. Surprisingly T. acuformis appeared intrinsically resistant to the triazole derivatives in comparison to T. yallundae, but both species were sensitive to prochloraz. The intensive use of these DMIs led to the development of acquired resistance towards triazoles in T. yallundae and towards prochloraz in T. acuformis. Today all the strains in both species appear equally sensitive to the anilinopyrimidine cyprodinil. ©1997 SCI     

Cross-Resistance Patterns Among Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibiting Fungicides (SBIs) in Cercospora beticola

Thirty single-spore isolates of Cercospora beticola, collected from several fields in northern Greece, representing a broad spectrum sensitivity to the sterol demethylation-inhibiting (DMIs) fungicide flutriafol, were tested for sensitivity to eleven other sterol biosynthesis-inhibiting (SBI) fungicides and to the guanidine fungicide dodine. Sensitivity was measured as EC₅₀ values for each fungicide and log-transformed EC₅₀ values to each fungicide were pairwise correlated and the correlation coefficient estimated. These pairwise comparisons showed high correlation coefficients between the DMIs suggesting a cross-resistance relationship between these fungicides. However, the degree of cross-resistance between DMIs varied greatly. Conversely, low correlation coefficients were obtained for the pair-wise comparisons with the morpholine fungicide fenpropimorph suggesting a lack of cross-resistance between morpholines and DMIs in C. beticola. Similarly, there was no correlation between the sensitivity (EC₅₀ values) to dodine and all the other fungicides tested, indicating that there was no negative cross-resistance relationship between dodine and SBIs in C. beticola. Based on these results, combinations or alternations of fungicides which show no cross-resistance relationship should be used to control the disease in areas where reduced sensitivity to DMIs has been already observed.     

甾醇载体蛋白2抑制剂的研究进展

农业害虫对杀虫剂抗性的持续增加,严重威胁着农业可持续发展和人类生存。高效、安全的新型农药的创制是有效控制害虫的重要保证。胆固醇是昆虫细胞膜和脂蛋白的重要组成成分,是类固醇激素的合成前体。但昆虫本身缺乏合成胆固醇的关键酶,无法从头合成胆固醇,需要从植物中摄取。甾醇载体蛋白2(SCP-2)在昆虫转运胆固醇的过程中起着关键作用。SCP-2可以作为筛选高效安全新农药的潜在靶标。本文就近几年筛选出的甾醇载体蛋白2抑制剂进行了总结。     

Detection of resistance to sterol demethylation-inhibiting (DMI) fungicides in<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cercospora beticola</Emphasis> and efficacy of control of resistant and sensitive strains with flutriafol

Single-lesion isolates ofCercospora beticola (n=150) were collected in 1998 from sugar beet fields in the area of Serres, N. Greece. In this area, sterol demethylation-inhibiting (DMI) fungicides have been used for almost 20 years to control sugar beet leaf spot. The sensitivity of these isolates to the DMI fungicides flutriafol and difenoconazole (EC₅₀ values) was determined on the basis of inhibition of mycelial growth at several fungicide concentrations. The relative growth (RG) of isolates was correlated at all tested concentrations with the respective EC₅₀ values, indicating that RG provides a reliable estimate for the sensitivity of the isolates. The highest correlation coefficients were obtained for concentrations of 1 μg ml⁻¹ flutriafol and of 0.05 μg ml⁻¹ difenoconazole, respectively. Consequently, they are proposed for monitoring of DMI sensitivity inC. beticola populations, as single discriminatory concentrations in a simplified test method. Based on the RG values at the discriminatory concentration of 1 μg ml⁻¹ flutriafol,C. beticola isolates were classified as either resistant or sensitive. The efficacy of flutriafol, applied at the commercially recommended dose, in controlling Cercospora leaf spot was examined in field experiments conducted during 1999 and 2000. Disease incidence in plots artificially inoculated with resistant isolates and treated with flutriafol was significantly higher than in similar plots inoculated with sensitive strains. These results suggest that poor disease control after application of flutriafol may be based on the presence of resistant strains within the pathogen population in northern Greece. This emphasizes the risk of the development of practical resistance if there is increased frequency of such strains within the population. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting July 13, 2003.     

Optimised expression and spectral analysis of the target enzyme CYP51 from Penicillium digitatum with possible new DMI fungicides

BACKGROUND: Sterol 14α‐demethylase (CYP51), a key target of azole (DMI) fungicides, can be expressed in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Green mould of citrus, caused by Penicillium digitatum (Pers.) Sacc., is a serious post‐harvest disease. To develop specific and more effective fungicides against this disease, the characteristics of the interaction between sterol 14α‐demethylase from P. digitatum (PdCYP51) and possible new fungicides were analysed. The cyp51 gene of P. digitatum was cloned and expressed under different conditions in Escherichia coli (Mig.) Cast. & Chalm., and the binding spectra of PdCYP51 were explored by the addition of two commercial azoles and four new nitrogen compounds. RESULTS: The yield of soluble protein (PdCYP51) was largest when expressed in Rosetta (DE3) induced by 0.5 mM IPTG for 8 h at 30 °C. Compound B (7‐methoxy‐2H‐benzo[b][1,4]thiazine‐3‐amine) showed the strongest binding activity of the four new nitrogen compounds, with a K_d value of 0.268 µM . The K_d values of the six compounds were significantly correlated with their EC₅₀ values. CONCLUSION: The spectral analysis and bioassay results could be used to screen the new chemical entities effectively. Compound B, selected by virtual screening from a commercial chemical library, is a candidate for a new DMI fungicide. These results provide a theoretical basis and new ideas for efficient design and development of new antifungal agents. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

喷雾诱导沉默CYP51和Sdh基因对禾谷丝核菌生长和致病性的影响

由于缺少稳定的遗传转化体系,丝核菌致病相关基因的功能研究受到严重限制。本研究以防治丝核菌病害的常用杀菌剂靶标基因CYP51和Sdh为目标基因,体外合成禾谷丝核菌CYP51的3个同源基因以及Sdh的B、C、D亚基基因的dsRNA,采用喷雾诱导基因沉默(spray-induced gene silencing, SIGS)方法研究这6个基因产生的dsRNA对病菌生长和致病性的影响。结果表明,外源施加靶标基因dsRNA对禾谷丝核菌的生长和致病性均有抑制作用。在被侵染的大麦叶片上,外源dsRNA能够显著抑制病菌中对应基因的表达。100 ng·μL^-1浓度的RcCYP51-3-dsRNA在大麦叶片上抑菌效果较为显著,且可以同时抑制3个RcCYP51同源基因的表达;RcSdhD-dsRNA同样可以抑制RcSdh三个亚基的基因表达,在50 ng·μL^-1浓度时抑菌效果最好。本研究探索了一种抑制禾谷丝核菌基因表达的方法,为使用SIGS方法研究丝核菌基因功能打下基础。     

5种甾醇生物合成抑制剂类(SBIs)抗真菌药物对9种植物病原真菌的活性筛选

为了寻找高效、低毒以及环境友好型的农药先导化合物,通过菌丝生长速率法测定了5种甾醇生物合成抑制剂类(SBIs)抗真菌药物(益康唑、氟康唑、伏立康唑、酮康唑和咪康唑)对7种植物病原菌的抑制效果,选择其中活性较高的药物进行了防治小麦白粉病和水稻纹枯病的盆栽试验及防治小麦条锈病和水稻纹枯病的田间药效试验。室内毒力测定结果表明:伏立康唑对供试的7种植物病原真菌的杀菌活性最高,其EC50值均低于0.349 mg/L,咪康唑对小麦赤霉病菌、梨黑斑病菌、西瓜枯萎病菌和香樟炭疽病菌,益康唑对梨黑斑病菌和西瓜枯萎病菌,以及酮康唑对水稻稻瘟病菌均表现出较强的杀菌活性,且均高于对照药剂苯醚甲环唑。盆栽试验结果显示:在药剂质量浓度为37.5 mg/L时,伏立康唑和氟康唑对小麦白粉病的防治效果分别为98.26%和89.11%,明显高于商品化杀菌剂三唑醇;在质量浓度为150 mg/L时,益康唑对水稻纹枯病的防治效果最好,为86.14%。田间试验结果表明:在有效剂量为240 g/hm^2时,氟康唑对小麦条锈病的防效为98.42%,益康唑对水稻纹枯病的防效为75.21%。研究结果表明,临床上的抗真菌药物氟康唑、伏立康唑和益康唑对植物病原真菌也具有很高的活性,可望作为农用杀菌剂的先导化合物进一步研究。     

植物病原真菌对甾醇生物合成抑制剂类(SBIs)杀菌剂的抗药性研究进展

甾醇生物合成抑制剂类(SBIs)杀菌剂通过抑制植物病原真菌甾醇生物合成途径中不同环节的酶,干扰或阻断病原菌麦角甾醇生物合成而发挥抗真菌作用。综述了植物病原真菌对SBIs杀菌剂的抗药性发生现状、遗传机制、生理生化机制、分子机制及治理策略等方面的最新研究进展。室内及田间有关SBIs杀菌剂抗药性的研究结果表明,植物病原菌对该类杀菌剂的抗药性可能是由1种或多种机制共同作用的结果。ABC和MFS运输蛋白基因及CYP51蛋白基因是植物病原真菌对SBIs杀菌剂产生抗药性的主要分子机制。其中ABC运输蛋白基因能够通过翻转酶将药剂从膜内层转移至外层而排出细胞体外;MFS运输蛋白基因的超表达和本底表达则是导致病原菌产生抗药性的关键因素;而CYP51蛋白基因与药剂作用时易在病原菌体内发生基因点突变或基因超表达,造成编码蛋白与药剂亲和力下降,导致病原菌产生抗药性。随着分子生物学的迅速发展,可从基因水平上寻找出与抗药性直接相关的基因、蛋白及调控途径等信息,同时与其他学科结合,合理设计新的、多作用位点的高效甾醇生物合成抑制剂,从而延长该类杀菌剂的使用寿命。     

Does agricultural use of azole fungicides contribute to resistance in the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus?

Azole resistance in human fungal pathogens has increased over the past twenty years, especially in immunocompromised patients. Similarities between medical and agricultural azoles, and extensive azole (14α‐demethylase inhibitor, DMI) use in crop protection, prompted speculation that resistance in patients with aspergillosis originated in the environment. Aspergillus species, and especially Aspergillus fumigatus, are the largest cause of patient deaths from fungi. Azole levels in soils following crop spraying, and differences in sensitivity between medical and agricultural azoles (DMIs), indicate weaker selection in cropping systems than in patients receiving azole therapy. Most fungi have just one CYP51 paralogue (isozyme CYP51B), but in Aspergillus sp. mutations conferring azole resistance are largely confined to a second paralogue, CYP51A. Binding within the active centre is similar for medical and agricultural azoles but differences elsewhere between the two paralogues may ensure selection depends on the DMI used on crops. Two imidazoles, imazalil and prochloraz, have been widely used since the early 1970s, yet unlike triazoles they have not been linked to resistance in patients. Evidence that DMIs are the origin, or increase the frequency, of azole resistance in human fungal pathogens is lacking. Limiting DMI use would have serious impacts on disease control in many crops, and remove key tools in anti‐resistance strategies. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relationship between chemical structure and biological activity of triazole fungicides against Botrytis cinerea

The inhibitory activity of commercial and experimental triazole fungicides on the target enzyme, sterol 14α-demethylase (P450_14DM), was studied in a cell-free sterol synthesis assay of Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr. In order to assess structure-activity relationships, the inhibitory activities of the compounds on radial growth of the fungus were tested as well. The EC₅₀ values (concentrations of fungicide inhibiting radial growth of B. cinerea on PDA by 50%) of all triazoles tested ranged between 10^?8 and 10^?5 m. IC₅₀ values (concentrations of fungicide inhibiting incorporation of [2-¹⁴C]mevalonate into C4-desmethyl sterols by 50%) generally ranged between 10^?9 and 10^?7 M and correlated with inhibition of radial mycelial growth. However, differences in IC₅₀ values did not reflect quantitatively the observed differences in EC₅₀ values, since the ratio between EC₅₀ and IC₅₀ increased with decreasing fungitoxicity. For a limited number of compounds the correlation between intrinsic inhibitory activity and fungitoxicity was low. Both in-vitro tests were used to investigate structure-activity relationships for stereoisomers of cyproconazole, SSF-109 and tebucona-zole. Fungitoxicity and the potency to inhibit cell-free C4-desmethyl sterol synthesis correlated for all stereoisomers tested. Mixtures of isomers of tebucona-zole or cyproconazole were slightly less active than the most potent isomer. The high activity of several commercial triazoles in both experiments implies that poor field performance of triazole fungicides against B. cinerea is due neither to insensitivity of the P450_14DM nor to low in-vitro sensitivity of the fungus.