Control and Ecology of the Black-Backed Jackal Canis Mesomelas in the Transvaal

Benthic oxygen demand was measured by dark and light bottle technique at two beaches in the Swartkops estuary, near Port Elizabeth. Respiration of nematodes was measured by polarographic micro-rcspirometer technique. Secondary production was 82 g C/m²/y in sandy areas and 863 g C/m²/y in muddy areas rich in the prawn Callianassa kraussi. Meiofauna production was 1,72 g C/m²/y in sand and 0,24 g C/m²/y in mud. The meiofauna] contribution to secondary production was 2,1% and 0,03% for these two areas respectively. The largest proportion of secondary production was due to micro-organisms: 92% in sand and 73,5% in mud. Macrofauna accounted for 5,75% and 24,4%. It is concluded that meiofauna in these exposed sand and mud flat areas is not quantitatively important, but the qualitative importance may be considerable.     

The epidemiology of rabies in Zimbabwe. 2. Rabies in jackals (Canis adustus and Canis mesomelas).

The epidemiology of rabies in Canis adustus (the side-striped jackal) and Canis mesomelas (the black-backed jackal) in Zimbabwe is described using data collected from 1950-1996. Cases in the two species made up 25.2% of all confirmed cases, second only to domestic dogs. Since the species of jackal cases was not recorded on rabies submission forms, the country was divided into areas according to species dominance and jackal cases were assigned to either C. adustus or C. mesomelas dominant zones or a sympatric zone where the relative status of the species is not known. Jackal rabies in both species is maintained in the commercial farming sector. Jackal rabies in the C. adustus zone occurs as dense epidemics, which begin at a single focus and spread centrifugally. The foci were initiated by rabid dogs, but once initiated the epidemic is maintained by C. adustus independently of other species. The extent of outbreaks in the C. adustus zone was limited by geographical (landuse type and jackal species interface) boundaries. Jackal rabies in C. adustus zones showed two seasonal peaks with the main peak occurring during late summer and the second peak during winter. In the C. mesomelas zone jackal rabies was more sparse but it occurred during most years. C. mesomelas is also able to maintain rabies independently of other species, although the epidemiology of the disease in this species is unclear. Transmission of rabies cycles between the two jackal species zones does not appear to occur as epidemics terminate when crossing the C. adustus and C. mesomelas interface boundaries.     

Antibody response to Raboral VR-G® oral rabies vaccine in captive and free-ranging black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas)

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that remains endemic in large parts of southern Africa because of its persistence in wildlife and domestic dog vectors. The black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) is primarily the wildlife vector responsible for rabies outbreaks in northern parts of South Africa. Two trials were carried out to investigate antibody responses to the oral rabies vaccine Raboral V-RG® in black-backed jackals under captive and free-ranging conditions. In captive jackals 10/12 (83%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 52% – 98%), seroconverted after single oral vaccination. Nine captive jackals had protective antibody titres (> 0.5 IU/mL) at 4 weeks (median: 2.1 IU/mL; inter quartile range [IQR]: 0.6–5.7) and 10 jackals had at 12 weeks (median: 3.5 IU/mL; IQR: 1.5–8.3) and three maintained antibody titres for up to 48 weeks (median: 3.4 IU/mL; IQR: 2.0–6.3). Four sites were baited with Raboral V-RG® vaccine for wild jackals, using fishmeal polymer and chicken heads. Baits were distributed by hand or from vehicle at three sites in north-eastern South Africa, with an average baiting density of 4.4 baits/km² and at one site in central South Africa, at 0.12 baits/km². This resulted in protective antibody titres in 3/11 jackals (27%; 95% Cl: 6–61) trapped between 3 and 12 months after baiting in north-eastern South Africa, compared with 4/7 jackals (57%; 95% Cl: 18–90) trapped after 3–18 months in central South Africa. This study shows the potential utility of oral rabies vaccination for the control of wildlife-associated rabies in north-eastern and central South Africa, but extensive studies with wider distribution of bait are needed to assess its potential impact on rabies control in wild jackals.     

Immunohistochemical Demonstration of Cytoskeletal Proteins in the Testis of the Japanese Black Bear, Ursus thibetanus japonicus

The seasonal changes of the cytoskeletal protein expressions were immunohistochemically investigated in the testes of Japanese black bear, Ursus thibetanus japonicus. A strong immunoreaction for α-smooth muscle actin is restricted to the vascular smooth muscle cells and the peritubular cells which surround the seminiferous tubules by several layers throughout the year. Weak immunoreactions for B4 antigen and desmin were observed in the vascular smooth muscle cells and in a part of peritubular cells throughout the year. A strong immunoreaction for vimentin was also detected in the fibroblasts and Leydig cells, in addition to the vascular smooth muscle and epithelial cells and the peritubular cells throughout the year. A strong α-tubulin immunoreaction was detected in the elongating spermatids during the acrosome phase of spermiogenesis in May and June. The cytoplasm of several Sertoli cells was faintly immunoreacted for vimentin in the basal and lateral region, while an intense α-tubulin reaction was seen in the entire cytoplasm in May, April and June. In November, January and March, the immunoreactions for vimentin and α-tubulin strongly accumulate in a perinuclear region of Sertoli cells when developmental spermatids are not seen in the seminiferous tubules. These accumulations in the immunoreactions for vimentin and α-tubulin seem to be caused by the reduction in size of Sertoli cells cytoplasm with season. However, the seasonal changes of distributions in the cytoskeletal proteins are obscure in the bear testes. These results suggest that the contents of cytoskeletal proteins may not change in relation to the morphological differences with season in the testes of the seasonal breeders.     

Presence of antibodies to canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus and canine adenovirus type 1 in free-ranging jackals (Canis adustus and Canis mesomelas) in Zimbabwe

A survey of free-ranging jackals (Canis adustus and Canis mesomelas) in Zimbabwe was conducted to determine the prevalence of serum antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV) and canine adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1). Sera from 16 Canis adustus and 22 Canis mesomelas were collected from 1990 to 1993 from various regions of Zimbabwe and assayed by means of immunofluorescent techniques. Seroprevalence in C. adustus and C. mesomelas respectively were 50% and 63.6% for CDV, 12.5% and 18.2% for CPV and 37.5 and 9.1 for CAV-1. These results demonstrate that jackals are infected with these viruses and may act as reservoirs of them, although their susceptibility to the viruses is not known.     

Habitat use and home range of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) on farmlands in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are an abundant mesopredator on farmlands (croplands and rangelands) across South Africa. Given their adaptability in a changing anthropogenic landscape, knowledge of spatial movements can provide important ecological information on the species. We captured, collared and monitored five black-backed jackals in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal to determine their home range and habitat use in farmlands. The 95% fixed kernel (95% FK) home range sizes were large, showing a marked seasonal variation in movement. One adult male dispersed 150?km over two seasons (winter and spring) and thereafter settled into a home range that it maintained. Transient home ranges of males and juveniles were larger than resident home ranges. The mean resident home ranges (95% FK) across seasons for adult males, adult female and juvenile males were 11.4 ± 4.3 km², 5.6 ± 0.36?km² and 2.15 ± 0.45?km², respectively. The mean transient home ranges (95% FK) of all the seasons for adult and juvenile males were 1 181.93 ± 575.81 km² and 104.27 ± 35.64?km², respectively. Adult jackal preferred croplands in spring, summer and autumn but avoided croplands in winter. Variable habitat use and large home ranges in our study confirmed the species’ ability to adapt to agricultural areas.     

Seasonal Morphology of the Domestic Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) Testis

A histological study was conducted on the testes of adult domestic quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) over a year. The results revealed a clear variation of testicular weight, seminiferous tubule diameter, and the thickness and composition of the germinal epithelium over the year. The highest testicular weights were detected at the end of the autumn and during the winter (short-day period), reaching a maximum, together with spermatogenic activity, in September (long-day period in the southern hemisphere). In contrast, both testicular weight and spermatogenic activity were markedly decreased at the end of spring and during summer (long-day periods in the southern hemisphere).     

Immunolocalization of Intermediate Filaments and Laminin in the Oviduct of the Immature and Mature Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

This study describes the distribution of vimentin, desmin, smooth muscle actin (SMA) and laminin in the oviduct of the immature and mature Japanese quail. The cytoskeletal proteins vimentin, desmin and SMA have been shown to be involved in cellular support, differentiation, migration and contractility. Laminin is a major component of basement membranes. Luminal epithelia in the infundibular and magnal regions of immature and mature birds exhibited strong vimentin immunoreactivity. Luminal epithelial cells exhibiting strong vimentin immunoreactivity were present in the isthmus and shell gland regions of only mature quails. Infundibular glandular grooves displayed strong vimentin immunostaining. In contrast, the glandular epithelia of the magnum, isthmus and shell gland were vimentin immunonegative. Fibroblasts and vascular endothelial cells in the lamina propria of the oviductal regions studied exhibited strong vimentin immunostaining. Smooth muscle cells forming the tunica muscularis and vascular tunica media displayed strong desmin and SMA immunostaining. Strong laminin immunostaining was demonstrated in the basement membranes associated with smooth muscle cells, as well as in the basement membranes underlying the luminal and glandular epithelia. In conclusion, this study has shown that the immunolocalization of desmin, SMA and laminin in the oviduct of the Japanese quail is similar to that in the domestic fowl. However, differences in the immunoexpression of vimentin in the LE of the two avian species were shown to exist. In addition, the study has shown that the immunolocalization of vimentin in the Japanese quail varies depending on the oviductal region, as well as the developmental stage of the oviduct.     

The Evolution of the Endozepine‐like Peptide (ELP) in the Mammalian Testis

The endozepine‐like peptide (ELP) is a testis‐specific isoform of the acyl‐CoA binding protein (ACBP) and shares the latter’s peptide motif for binding mid‐long chain acyl‐CoA groups. ELP is expressed both as mRNA and protein at high levels in the testes of a wide range of mammals, including rodents, carnivores and ruminants. However, the ELP gene is progressively inactivated through primate evolution, with no protein detectable in a range of primates studied, including human. In nonprimate species, ELP is expressed in very late postmeiotic germ cell stages only, such that its function in these species is probably associated with the metabolism of the mature spermatozoon. Current research is looking at both the function of the ELP protein and the haploid regulation of the gene.     

Post‐Warming Competence of In Vivo Matured Rabbit Oocytes Treated with Cytoskeletal Stabilization (Taxol) and Cytoskeletal Relaxant (Cytochalasin B) Before Vitrification

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Taxol and Cytochalasin B on the spindle, chromosome configuration and development to blastocyst stage after parthenogenesis activation of in vivo matured rabbit oocytes after vitrification. Oocytes were randomized into four groups: oocytes treated with Cytochalasin B or Taxol before vitrification, oocytes without treatment before vitrification and fresh oocytes. Oocytes were vitrified using Cryotop method, and meiotic spindle and chromosomal distribution were assessed with a confocal laser scanning microscopy. To determine oocyte competence, in vitro development of oocytes was assessed with parthenogenesis activation. There were no significant differences in the frequencies of normal spindle (33.0%, 31.0% and 32.6%, for non‐treated, Taxol‐treated and Cytochalasin B‐treated oocytes, respectively) and chromosome (48.3%, 46.6% and 34.8%, for non‐treated, Taxol‐treated oocytes and Cytochalasin B‐treated oocytes respectively) in vitrified groups, but significantly lower than those of fresh group (89.7% and 90.2%, for normal spindle and chromosome organization, respectively). No statistical differences were found in the cleavage and blastocyst development rates between non‐treated and Taxol‐treated oocytes (7.7% and 1.5% and 13.7% and 4.6%, for non‐treated and Taxol‐treated oocytes, respectively), although they were significantly lower than in the fresh group (42.3% and 32.1%, for cleavage and blastocyst development, respectively). Oocytes treated with Cytochalasin B failed to reach blastocyst stage. Normal spindle, chromosome configuration and blastocyst development of in vivo matured rabbit oocytes were damaged in vitrification, which was not improved by Taxol and Cytochalasin B pre‐treatment before vitrification. Moreover, a detrimental effect on blastocyst development of Cytochalasin B pre‐treatment before vitrification was observed.     

Seasonal and Ageing‐Depending Changes of Aquaporins 1 and 9 Expression in the Genital Tract of Buffalo Bulls (Bubalus bubalis)

The presence of Aquaporins 1 (AQP1) and 9 (AQP9), integral membrane water channels that facilitate rapid passive movement of water and solutes, was immunohistochemically detected in the excurrent ducts collected from sexually mature buffalo bulls of proven fertility during the mating (late autumn–winter) and non‐mating (late spring to the beginning of autumn) seasons. Furthermore, the research was performed also on the epididymal cauda of a senile buffalo bull with inactive testis. Aquaporins 1 and 9 were immunolocalized at distinct levels. In the efferent ducts, AQP1 immunoreactivity was strongly evidenced at the apical surface of the non‐ciliated cells and weakly along the basal membrane of the epithelial cells. The latter reactivity disappeared during the non‐mating season. No AQP1 immunoreactivity was detected in the epithelium of epididymis and vas deferens, whereas AQP1 was expressed in the smooth muscle layer of the vas deferens. Aquaporin 1 was present in the blood vessels and in small nerve bundles all along the genital tract. The supranuclear zone of the epididymal principal cells was AQP9 immunoreactive, limited to the corpus and cauda regions, and vas deferens. The samples collected in the two reproductive seasons showed a weaker AQP9 immunoreactivity during the non‐mating season. A typical AQP9 immunoreactivity was noticed in the old buffalo examined. The tested AQP molecules showed a different expression pattern in comparison with laboratory mammals, primates, equine, dog and cat. In addition, seasonal differences were noticed which are possibly useful in regard to the comprehension of the morphophysiology of reproduction in the bubaline species, which are still a matter of debate.     

Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMP‐2, MMP‐9) and their Inhibitors (TIMP‐1, TIMP‐2) in Canine Testis,Epididymis and Semen

This study aims to investigate the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in determining semen quality and to evaluate the expression and cellular localization of MMP‐2, MMP‐9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase‐1 (TIMP‐1) and TIMP‐2 in the testes, epididymis and ejaculated spermatozoa. Gelatinase activities between normal (n = 21) and abnormal (n = 25) semen samples showed a significant, sixfold increase in proMMP‐2 and MMP‐2 activity in high than low sperm concentration samples (p < 0.001). ProMMP‐9 and MMP‐9 levels were significantly elevated in samples with low sperm counts compared to those with high sperm density (p < 0.001). High levels of proMMP‐2 and MMP‐2 were associated with high sperm motility (≥70%, p < 0.001). Sperm‐rich fraction showed significantly (eight‐fold) higher proMMP‐9 enzymatic activity compared with prostatic fraction. The mRNA expressions of MMP‐2, MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 were confirmed in testicular and epididymal tissues. Immunohistochemical staining illustrated the MMP‐2‐specific strong immunoreactivity in the head of mature spermatids during spermatogenesis, whereas MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 were absent in these cells. Matrix metalloproteinase‐9 immunoreactivity was observed in the spermatocyte and round spermatid, whereas TIMP‐1 was only exhibited in the residual bodies. Immunolabeling of epididymal and ejaculated sperm demonstrated MMP‐2 localization along acrosomal region of sperm, while MMP‐9, TIMP‐1 and TIMP‐2 localization was merely limited to the flagella. In conclusion, spermatozoa initially acquire MMP‐2 during their formation at testicular level, and the presence of this protein persists through the epididymal transit and up to ejaculate. The enzymatic activity of MMP‐2 and MMP‐9 may serve as an alternative biomarker in determining semen quality.     

Age determination in jackals (Canis adustus Sundevall, 1846, andCanis mesomelas Schreber, 1778; Carnivora: Canidae) with reference to the age structure and breeding patterns of jackal populations in Zimbabwe

Methods for determining the age of individual jackals using canine teeth were assessed as part of a study of the population structure of jackal species (side striped jackal, Canis adustus, and black backed jackal, Canis mesomelas), the main wildlife species maintaining rabies in Zimbabwe. Specimens of both species of jackal were obtained from rabies submissions and culling operations, although the major part of the study involved C. adustus. A method of ageing based on relative pulp cavity width of canine teeth differentiated young adults (one year old) from mature adults, but was of no value in determining the age after one year. A method based on cementum incremental growth layers was of no value as the layers were irregular and did not correspond with pulp cavity width. Canis adustus will breed in their first year but no evidence was found to show that C. mesomelas will normally breed at this age. Up to 60 % of C. adustus were young of year jackals, indicating high population turn over and the potential for rapid population recovery following population crashes.     

The Excurrent Ducts of the Testis of the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and Ostrich (Struthio camelus): Microstereology of the Epididymis and Immunohistochemistry of its Cytoskeletal Systems

The volumetric proportion of the various ducts of the epididymis of the emu and ostrich and the immunohistochemistry of actin microfilaments, as well as cytokeratin, desmin and vimentin intermediate filaments, were studied in the various ducts of the epididymis of the emu and ostrich. The volumetric proportions of various ducts, which are remarkably different from those of members of the Galloanserae monophyly, are as follows: the rete testis, 5.2 ± 1.4% for the emu and 2.4 ± 1.8% for the ostrich; efferent ducts, 14.2 ± 2.3% (emu) and 11.8 ± 1.8% (ostrich); epididymal duct unit, 25.8 ± 5.8% (emu) and 26.1 ± 4.1% (ostrich) and connective tissue and its content, 54.7 ± 5.8% (emu) and 60.0 ± 4.9% (ostrich). Unlike in mammals and members of the Galloanserae monophyly, only vimentin was immunohistochemically demonstrated in the rete testis epithelium of the emu, and none of the cytoskeletal protein elements in the ostrich rete testis. The epithelium of the efferent ducts of the emu co-expressed actin, cytokeratin and desmin in the non-ciliated type I cells, and vimentin in the ciliated cell component. The ostrich demonstrated only cytokeratin in this epithelium. The ratite epididymal duct unit is different from that of mammals in lacking actin (only weaky expression in the ostrich), desmin and cytokeratin, and a moderate/strong immunoexpression of vimentin in the basal cells and basal parts of the NC type III cell in the epididymal duct unit. Immunoexpression of the microfilaments and intermediate filaments varied between the two ratite birds, as has been demonstrated previously in birds of the Galloanserae monophyly, and in mammals.     

Changes in the Immunolocalization of Steroidogenic Enzymes and the Androgen Receptor in Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Testes in Association with the Seasons and Spermatogenesis

The raccoon is a seasonal breeder with a mating season in the winter. In a previous study, adult male raccoons exhibited active spermatogenesis with high plasma testosterone concentrations, in the winter mating season. Maintenance of spermatogenesis generally requires high testosterone, which is produced by steroidogenic enzymes. However, even in the summer non-mating season, some males produce spermatozoa actively despite low plasma testosterone concentrations. To identify the factors that regulate testosterone production and contribute to differences in spermatogenetic activity in the summer non-mating season, morphological, histological and endocrinological changes in the testes of wild male raccoons should be known. In this study, to assess changes in the biosynthesis, metabolism and reactivity of testosterone, the localization and immunohistochemical staining intensity of four steroidogenic enzymes (P450scc, P450c17, 3βHSD, P450arom) and the androgen receptor (AR) were investigated using immunohistochemical methods. P450scc and P450c17 were detected in testicular tissue throughout the year. Seasonal changes in testosterone concentration were correlated with 3βHSD expression, suggesting that 3βHSD may be important in regulating the seasonality of testosterone production in raccoon testes. Immunostaining of P450arom and AR was detected in testicular tissues that exhibited active spermatogenesis in the summer, while staining was scarce in aspermatogenic testes. This suggests that spermatogenesis in the raccoon testis might be maintained by some mechanism that regulates P450arom expression in synthesizing estradiol and AR expression in controlling reactivity to testosterone.     

Temperament and lateralization in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)

The authors investigated the relationship between paw preference (the paw with which dogs prefer to hold a food object) and temperament in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Hypotheses were based on the Valence-Specific Hypothesis, which broadly states that negative emotions are associated with the right hemisphere, and positive emotions are associated with the left hemisphere. To assess each dog's temperament, an owner-rated temperament questionnaire was administered to the owners of 73 pet dogs. The same dogs were tested for paw preference using a Kong (KONG Company, Golden, CO) stuffed with food and were subsequently classified as left-pawed, right-pawed, or ambilateral. A laterality index (LI) value was also calculated for each dog in the study to provide an indication of the strength and direction of its paw preference. Positive LI values reflected a preference for the right paw, whereas negative LI values reflected a preference for the left paw. The LI ranged from ?100 to +100, with numbers closer to either extreme reflecting a stronger paw preference and a score of 0 indicating no preference. The absolute value of LI reflects the strength, but not direction, of paw preference and was included in some analyses.We found no evidence to support a relationship between paw preference and temperament, with the exception that lateralized dogs scored marginally higher than ambilateral dogs on a measure of stranger-directed aggression. We suggest that the temperament assessment used in this study may not be sensitive enough to detect differences between individuals based on their lateralization. Temperament factors were also compared with a number of “demographic” variables (e.g., age, sex, whether the dog was a purebred or a crossbreed, and the frequency of exercise) to determine the effect of these variables on temperament outcomes.     

Hematology and serum clinical chemistry reference intervals for free‐ranging Scandinavian gray wolves (Canis lupus)

Background: Scandinavian free‐ranging wolves (Canis lupus) are endangered, such that laboratory data to assess their health status is increasingly important. Although wolves have been studied for decades, most biological information comes from captive animals. Objectives: The objective of the present study was to establish reference intervals for 30 clinical chemical and 8 hematologic analytes in Scandinavian free‐ranging wolves. Methods: All wolves were tracked and chemically immobilized from a helicopter before examination and blood sampling in the winter of 7 consecutive years (1998–2004). Seventy‐nine blood samples were collected from 57 gray wolves, including 24 juveniles (24 samples), 17 adult females (25 samples), and 16 adult males (30 samples). Whole blood and serum samples were stored at refrigeration temperature for 1–3 days before hematologic analyses and for 1–5 days before serum biochemical analyses. Reference intervals were calculated as 95% confidence intervals except for juveniles where the minimum and maximum values were used. Results: Significant differences were observed between adult and juvenile wolves for RBC parameters, alkaline phosphatase and amylase activities, and total protein, albumin, γ‐globulins, cholesterol, creatinine, calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, and sodium concentrations. Conclusion: Compared with published reference values for captive wolves, reference intervals for free‐ranging wolves reflected exercise activity associated with capture (higher creatine kinase activity, higher glucose concentration), and differences in nutritional status (higher urea concentration).     

Microstructure Features of Proventriculus and Ultrastructure of the Gastric Gland Cells in Chinese Taihe Black‐bone Silky Fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus Brisson)

To investigate microstructure of proventriculus and ultrastructure of the gastric gland cells from Chinese Taihe black‐bone silky fowl (BSF), the proventriculus of 4‐week‐old BSF was sampled. Conventional histological and transmission electron microscope (TEM) methods were used in this study. The wall of the Taihe BSF proventriculus was consisted of four layers, the mucous, submucosa, muscularis externa and the serosa as others birds. The muscularis externa of the birds' proventriculus contained three layers. Much of the melanin was present in loose connective tissue of lamina propria, submucosa, and muscularis externa unlike others. In addition, the ultrastructure of the gastric gland cells was observed by TEM. There was only one kind of gland cell, for example oxynticopeptic cell in proventriculus of Taihe BSF. The oxynticopeptic cells contained numerous mitochondria, cisternae of rough endoplasmic reticulum (CRER), intracellular canaliculi (IC) that secrete hydrochloric acid and small amounts of pepsinogen granules. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) was irregular cisternae with ribosomes and surrounded tightly the mitochondria along their configuration. The electron‐dense pepsinogen granules were round with various sizes. The neighbouring oxynticopeptic cells were closed up with tight junction and gap junction. The inter‐space between the neighbouring oxynticopeptic cells was stenosis or was filled with electron‐dense extracellular substance. In conclusion, the gastric gland cells of Chinese Taihe BSF proventriculus were only oxynticopeptic cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, but no parietal cells and chief cells of mammal. The gastric gland cells of proventriculus were underdeveloped compared with those of mammals.