低氧分压通过低氧诱导因子(HIF)影响卵母细胞的体外成熟和早期胚胎的发育

卵母细胞和早期胚胎的体外培养(IVC)是哺乳动物胚胎工程的一项关键技术,是生殖生物学和转基因与克隆技术等生物技术研究的基础.影响卵母细胞和早期胚胎体外培养的因素包括培养液组成成分、离子浓度和渗透压,培养环境气相组成和温度等.最近研究表明,培养系统中的氧分压可以显著影响胚胎的发育,而这种影响主要由低氧诱导因子(hypoxia-inducible factor,HIF)进行调控.作者综述了氧分压及HIF对卵母细胞和早期胚胎体外发育的影响,并对HIF的结构及调控机制进行讨论,为研究低氧培养技术在卵母细胞和早期胚胎体外培养中的应用提供依据.     

水牛卵泡颗粒细胞对卵母细胞体外成熟的影响

为了系统研究颗粒细胞对水牛卵母细胞体外成熟的影响,使用颗粒细胞条件液处理或单层颗粒细胞和卵母细胞共培养的方法,探讨颗粒细胞共培养对水牛卵母细胞体外成熟和早期胚胎发育的影响.结果显示,添加颗粒细胞传代接种第2天收集的20％颗粒细胞条件液到水牛卵母细胞成熟液中能显著提高水牛卵母细胞体外成熟率和囊胚发育率(P＜0.05);然...     

Effects of oxygen tension in the gas atmosphere during in vitro maturation, in vitro fertilization and in vitro culture on the efficiency of in vitro production of mouse embryos

Effects of oxygen (O2) tension in the gas atmosphere during in vitro maturation (IVM), in vitro fertilization (IVF) and in vitro culture (IVC) on the efficiency of in vitro production of mouse embryos were examined. Mouse oocytes recovered from large antral follicles were subjected to IVM in Waymouth medium for 15, 16 and 17 hr under 5 or 20% O2 and then subjected to IVF and IVC under 5 or 20% O2 tension. Lowering the O2 tension in the gas atmosphere for IVM from 20 to 5% improved the cleavage rate after IVF when the oocytes were subjected to IVM for 15 hr; however, no improvement in the cleavage rate was observed when the culture period for IVM was extended to 16 and 17 hr. Lowering the O2 tension to 5% for IVM and IVC improved the development of the cleaved oocytes to the blastocyst stage, regardless of the culture period for IVM. However, the O2 tension for IVF had no remarkable effect on the subsequent embryonic development. These results demonstrate that 5% O2 is superior to 20% O2 for IVM and IVC, and suggest that 20% O2 for IVM may delay oocyte maturation and/or the acquisition of fertilizability and impair the developmental competence of oocytes.     

Supplementation with exogenous coenzyme Q10 to media for in vitro maturation and embryo culture fails to promote the developmental competence of porcine embryos

The coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a potent antioxidant with critical protection role against cell oxidative stress, caused by the mitochondrial dysfunction. This study evaluated the effects of CoQ10 supplementation to in vitro maturation (IVM) or embryo culture media on the maturation, fertilization and subsequent embryonic development of pig oocytes and embryos. Maturation (Experiment 1) or embryo culture (Experiment 2) media were supplemented with 0 (control), 10, 25, 50 and 100 μM CoQ10. The addition of 10–50 μM CoQ10 to the IVM medium did not affect the percentage of MII oocytes nor the fertilization or the parameters of subsequent embryonic development. Exogenous CoQ10 in the culture medium neither did affect the development to the 2–4‐cell stage nor rates of blastocyst formation. Moreover, the highest concentration of CoQ10 (100 μM) in the maturation medium negatively affected blastocyst rates. In conclusion, exogenous CoQ10 supplementation of maturation or embryo culture media failed to improve the outcomes of our in vitro embryo production system and its use as an exogenous antioxidant should not be encouraged.     

铁对牛卵母细胞体外成熟和体外受精的影响

本试验研究铁对体外生产牛胚胎的影响。从屠宰场收集牛卵巢,抽取卵巢表面的卵母细胞,采用体外成熟和体外受精的方法,研究不同浓度的铁(0.45mg/L,0.81mg/L,1.96mg/L,2.78mg/L)对牛卵母细胞体外成熟和体外受精的影响。结果如下:当卵母细胞在体外培养22h时,不同浓度的铁之间对卵母细胞体外成熟影响较小,差异不显著(p>0.05),且与对照组之间差异不显著(p>0.05);在体外受精的研究中,铁浓度为1.96mg/L和2.78mg/L的受精卵培养液可以明显提高8细胞胚胎发育率,差异显著(p<0.05);铁浓度为1.96mg/L的受精卵培养液可以明显提高囊胚发育率,囊胚发育率为31.6%,与其他浓度的铁相比,差异显著(p<0.05)。本试验结果说明:在卵母细胞体外成熟阶段,培养液中的铁对卵母细胞体外成熟没有影响,但对受精后早期胚胎的发育有促进作用,1.96mg/L是比较合适的早期胚胎培养液中铁的添加量。     

Effect of low oxygen tension atmosphere and maturation media supplementation on nuclear maturation, cortical granules migration and sperm penetration in swine in vitro fertilization

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of low oxygen tension (5% CO(2) , 5% O(2) and 90% N(2) ) on in vitro oocyte maturation using defined media (0.1% polyvinyl alcohol - PVA) or 10% porcine follicular fluid (PFF)-supplemented media. To achieve this goal, oocytes were evaluated regarding cortical granules (GCs) migration, nuclear maturation and sperm penetration. Oocytes were in vitro matured under different conditions: 5% or 20% O(2) atmosphere and 0.1% PVA- or 10% PFF-supplemented media and evaluated at 0 and 44 h of maturation. To evaluate the migration of CGs and nuclear maturation, by confocal microscopy, oocytes were incubated with 100 μg of FITC-PNA/ml and 10 μg/ml of propidium iodide. To address sperm penetration, after maturation, in vitro fertilization for 6 h and in vitro culture for 18 h, zygotes were incubated with 10 mg/ml Hoechst 33342. Pronuclei and polar bodies were quantified using an epifluorescence microscope. Atmosphere conditions did not affect the CGs migration, but media supplementation did. Oocytes matured in 10% PFF media had a higher percentage of CGs in the oocyte periphery than oocytes matured in PVA-supplemented media. However, this fact did not have effect on in vitro sperm penetration levels. No effect of atmosphere conditions and media supplementation was observed on the rates of metaphase II oocytes. Therefore, the use of low oxygen tension in association with PVA maturation media does not improve the in vitro maturation system of porcine oocytes, because its use did not improve nuclear maturation, CGs migration and zygotes monospermic rates.     

Mitochondrial activity and morphology in developing porcine oocytes and pre-implantation non-cultured and cultured embryos

Mitochondria are important determinants of developmental competence for oocytes and embryos owing to their central role in cellular metabolism, yet mitochondrial activity and morphometry during early porcine development have not been quantified. In this study, we examined the membrane potential Δψ(m) and the surface density Sv(in,m) of the inner mitochondrial membrane in pig oocytes and pre-implantation embryos using fluorescent probes and confocal microscopy. Mitochondria and their cristae were also examined by transmission electron microscope. Δψ(m) was consistently low from immature oocytes up to morulae and increased significantly in the early blastocyst before decreasing at the expanded blastocyst stage. This stage-dependent pattern of Δψ(m) changes differs from that reported for other mammals. We also determined that Δψ(m) is lower in cultured when compared to non-cultured porcine early blastocysts. Sv(in,m) was higher in immature oocytes than mature oocytes and remained constant up to the 4- to 8-cell embryo stage. It increased significantly at morula and early blastocyst stages. No differences in Sv(in,m) were found between developmentally matched non-cultured and cultured embryos. These results indicate that the inner mitochondrial membrane potential and surface density change significantly during pre-implantation porcine development in relation to metabolic alterations of the embryo. It is possible that modification of Δψ(m) by manipulating culture conditions may improve the performance of embryos that develop in vitro.     

The effect of co-culture on the development of in vitro matured equine oocytes after intracytoplastic sperm injection

It is clear that, in the horse, there are many weak links in the process of in vitro embryo production; an optimal culture system for equine oocytes does not exist, and related data are conflicting. Therefore, the ability of 3 different culture systems to support embryonic development of ICSI horse oocytes was examined. Oocytes (n = 261) suitable for culture were collected from 55 ovaries and divided, according to cumulus morphology, into 2 categories: expanded cumulus and compacted cumulus. Oocytes with expanded and compacted cumulus were cultured for in vitro maturation in TCM 199 + 10% FCS + 0.1 iu/ml FSH/LH at 38.5 degrees C under 5% CO2 in air for 24 and 40 h, respectively. Oocytes (n = 149) reached metaphase II and were subjected to ICSI with frozen semen and then incubated in 3 different culture systems: A) TCM 199 + 10% FCS alone or B) on granulosa cell monolayer, C) SOF + MEM amino acids + 0.8% BSA. Cultural conditions were 39 degrees C and 5% CO2 in air for A and B, while a gas mixture (5% CO2, 5% O2, 90% N2) was used for C. The fertilisation rate was 32%. The cleavage rate in Group A was 74.4% (32/43); 18 embryos reached 2-6 cell stage, eight 8-16 cell, four 16-32 cell and two >32 cell. In Group B, the cleavage rate was 73.5% (36/49) with better results in embryonic development; 14 reached 2-6 cell stage, eighteen 8-16 cell, twelve 16-32 cell and five >32 cell. In Group C, the cleavage rate was significantly lower then in A and B; only 15 of 47 ICSI oocytes (39.1%) cleaved with maximum development to 2-6 cell stage. The remaining oocytes (68.1%) degenerated during culture. In conclusion, IVM horse oocytes can be fertilised in vitro with high efficiency with ICSI and co-culture systems showed to be superior in supporting in vitro embryo culture compared to simple ones. The identification of the factors beneficial to in vitro embryo development provided by the somatic cells could be important to optimise the embryo culture systems for equine embryos.     

胰岛素和白血病抑制因子对猪卵母细胞体外成熟和孤雌激活胚胎的影响

为探讨胰岛素(Insulin)和白血病抑制因子(Leukemia inhibit factor,LIF)对猪卵母细胞体外成熟(IVM)和猪孤雌激活胚胎(PAEs)的影响,在卵母细胞体外成熟或者胚胎培养基中添加Insulin和LIF,研究卵裂率和囊胚率的变化。结果:添加了5μg/mL Insulin后猪卵母细胞体外成熟效果显著提高,但成熟后孤雌激活发育能力与非添加组相近;而胚胎培养基中添加Insulin对孤雌胚的卵裂和囊胚的形成也没有明显促进作用;添加1 000 U/mL的LIF后,卵母细胞核成熟率没有明显提高,反而孤雌激活后囊胚率急剧下降,但对卵裂率以及囊胚总细胞数影响不大;在胚胎培养基中添加LIF后,孤雌胚的卵裂和囊胚形成并没有明显的提高。表明:Insulin对卵母细胞体外成熟有益,但是对孤雌胚胎的最佳处理程序还需要摸索;本文所采用的LIF处理对猪卵体外成熟以及孤雌胚胎体外发育没有帮助,还需要进一步研究其他浓度和处理程序对猪卵母细胞体外成熟和孤雌激活胚胎发育能力的影响。     

Bovine Oocyte Meiotic Inhibition Before In Vitro Maturation and Its Value to In Vitro Embryo Production: Does it Improve Developmental Competence?

The efficiency of bovine in vitro embryo production has remained low despite extensive effort to understand the effects of culture conditions, media composition and supplementation. As bovine oocytes resume meiosis spontaneously when cultured, it was hypothesized that preventing meiosis in vitro before in vitro maturation (IVM) and in vitro fertilization (IVF) would allow more oocytes to acquire developmental competence. This article reviews some of the factors involved in meiotic arrest as well as the effects of meiotic inhibition before IVM on bovine oocytes developmental competence following IVF. Follicular components and cAMP-elevating agents can delay or inhibit meiosis in various proportions of oocytes; however, few studies have examined their effects on development following IVM and IVF because they are not practical (follicular components) or have a transient effect on meiosis (cAMP-elevating agents). Protein synthesis or phosphorylation inhibition prevented meiosis in high percentages of oocytes; however, these non-specific inhibitions led to lower developmental competence compared with non-arrested oocytes. Maturation promoting factor (MPF) inhibition with specific inhibitors has been examined in several studies. Despite faster maturation following removal from inhibition and some structural damage to the oocytes, MPF inhibition generally led to blastocyst rates similar to control, non-arrested oocytes. Future work will involve evaluating the effects on arrested oocytes of molecules that can improve developmental competence in non-arrested oocytes. It is also anticipated that new IVM systems that take into consideration new knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the control of meiosis will be developed. Moreover, global gene expression analysis studies will also provide clues to the culture conditions required for optimal expression of developmental competence.     

动物早期胚胎体外培养的研究进展

胚胎的体外培养是动物胚胎工程技术的基础环节之一,也是胚胎移植重要的前期基础。由于在体外培养过程中,早期胚胎对环境的变化较为敏感,导致早期胚胎发育到囊胚的成功率不高,因此,如何提高囊胚率是核心问题。就动物早期胚胎体外培养的培养环境、胚胎培养液添加物以及胚胎体外培养体系等方面的研究进展进行综述,同时对胚胎体外培养技术目前存在的一些问题进行了总结,并对其前景做了展望。     

Oxidative stress and redox regulation on in vitro development of mammalian embryos

Many factors affect development of mammalian preimplantation embryos in vitro. It is well known that in vitro development of bovine embryos is highly affected by culture condition including energy source, growth factors, pH or gas environment. Many efforts have been made towards the suitable environments which can successfully support embryo development in vitro. For a rapid growth and differentiation, embryo requires energy by utilizing ATP, NADPH with oxygen molecules. These energy substrates are produced from the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. In addition to energy production, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also generated as by-product of such energy production system. ROS production is sensitively controlled by the balance of oxidizing and reducing status and affected by several antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) or low molecular weight thiols such as glutathione (GSH). Imbalance of oxidation and reduction causes production of excess ROS, which causes the developmental arrest, physical DNA damage, apoptosis induction or lipid peroxidation. Environmental oxygen condition during embryo culture also highly affects embryo development as well as intracellular redox balance. Several studies have revealed that regulation of intra- and extra- cellular reducing environment by reducing excess ROS by using antioxidants, reducing oxygen concentration are effective for improving embryo development. Also, recent studies have demonstrated the difference in gene expression affected by oxidative stress. This review briefly summarizes the effects of ROS and the role of redox balance on preimplantation embryos for improving the efficiency of in vitro production of mammalian embryos.     

共培养体系对哺乳动物卵母细胞体外成熟影响的研究进展

卵母细胞体外成熟是进行体外胚胎生产的关键环节,但目前哺乳动物卵母细胞体外成熟培养存在成熟率低、受精率低和胚胎质量差等问题。卵母细胞体外成熟培养体系是制约卵母细胞体外成熟效果的重要因素,共培养体系可提高哺乳动物卵母细胞体外成熟效率。本文主要从卵母细胞成熟与卵泡细胞共培养、与裸卵共培养和与间充质干细胞共培养3个方面综述共培养体系对哺乳动物卵母细胞体外成熟的影响,为共培养体系应用于卵母细胞体外成熟提供理论依据和研究借鉴。     

Isolation and culture of preantral follicles for retrieving oocytes for the embryo production: present status in domestic animals

The development of efficient ovarian preantral follicle (PF) isolation and culture systems provide a large number of oocytes for the manipulation and embryo production. It also helps for understanding the mechanisms of follicle and oocyte development. Isolation and culture protocols for PFs were developed for many domestic species like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, horse, camel, dog and cats; however, embryo production from oocytes derived from in vitro grown PFs was reported only in pigs, buffalo, sheep and goat. The rate of oocyte maturation from PFs grown in vitro is low and requires considerable research. This paper presents an overview of isolation and culture systems of PFs that have been developed for domestic species (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pigs, horse, camel, dog and cat) along with the current status of progress achieved in the direction of producing embryos using PFs as the source of oocyte in these species.     

奶牛活体采卵-体外受精效率的影响因素研究

为建立稳定高效的活体采卵-体外受精技术体系,提高体外胚胎生产效率,本研究先利用屠宰场采集的新鲜卵巢卵母细胞进行体外受精,通过胚胎发育潜力来筛选最佳的体外胚胎培养液;再进一步研究不同种公牛精液和供卵母牛对活体采卵-体外受精效率的影响。结果显示,CR1aa培养液和mCR1aa培养液卵裂率差异不显著（P>0.05）,但mCR1aa组的囊胚发育率显著提高（28.1% vs 20.6%,P<0.05）;选取的3头荷斯坦种公牛精液的活体采卵-体外受精胚胎的卵裂率差异不显著（P>0.05）,但1号种公牛精液体外受精后囊胚率（38.7%）显著高于2号和3号（23.8%&22.9%）（P<0.05）;随机选择的3头活体采卵供体母牛（H1、H2、H3）获得的头均可用卵母细胞数无显著差异,但H1和H2供体母牛体外受精胚胎的卵裂率和囊胚率均显著高于H3供体牛（P<0.05）,且H1供体牛体外受精囊胚率显著高于H2供体牛（P<0.05）。结果表明,mCR1aa培养液能显著提高体外受精囊胚发育率,适用于体外胚胎生产;种公牛精液和供体母牛个体差异会直接影响活体采卵-体外受精胚胎的生产效率,为奶牛活体采卵-体外受精生产技术体系的优化提供参考。     

转GFP基因核移植牛胚胎的研究

试验采用脂质体转染法与电穿孔法,以携带绿色荧光蛋白（GFP）-新霉抗性（neo-）双标记基因的pMSCV质粒转染胎牛耳成纤维细胞为供体与体外成熟的牛卵母细胞为受体构建克隆胚。研究了体外成熟培养液中添加EGF（表皮生长因子）对转基因胚的影响,不同转染方法构建供体细胞对重构胚发育的影响和在不同体外培养系统中的发育效果。结果显示,体外成熟培养液中添加EGF 30 ng/mL组的卵母细胞成熟率最高,但对后期转基因重构胚的囊胚发育率的影响,以添加EGF 20 ng/mL组的最高;以胎牛耳成纤维细胞为供体细胞,不同转染方法转染供体细胞构建重构胚,其囊胚发育率差异不显著（P>〖JP2〗0.05）;mSOFaa+颗粒细胞单层细胞共培养体系中的转基因囊胚发育率最好,该体系更适合体细胞核移植法生产转基因牛胚胎。     

Effect of trans-10 cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid on bovine oocyte competence and fatty acid composition

The reproductive performance of dairy cows may be improved by feeding conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) supplements during early lactation. The mechanism of action of t10,c12 CLA is not clearly known. Our objective was to investigate the effect of t10,c12 CLA on oocyte maturation and lipid composition of cumulus oocyte complexes (COC). The developmental potential of oocytes incubated in in vitro maturation (IVM) medium supplemented with t10,c12 CLA to the blastocyst stage and embryo quality were also assessed. In experiment 1, abattoir-derived oocytes were matured in TCM199 + 10% serum supplemented with 100 μM t10,c12 CLA (t10,c12 CLA n = 672) or without it (control n = 672). Mature oocytes were either stained for chromatin configuration or inseminated and cultured for embryo development assessment. In experiment 2, COC and IVM culture media were subjected to fatty acid (FA) analysis prior and after maturation with t10,c12 CLA or without it (control). Total lipids and FA profiles in oocytes, cumulus cells and culture media were determined by gas chromatography. t10,c12 CLA supplementation to IVM medium improved (p = 0.05) embryo quality evaluated morphologically. This effect was associated with t10,c12 CLA presence (3.1 ± 0.7%, p = 0.04) and lower levels of arachidonic acid in FA profile of t10,c12 CLA mature oocytes (immature oocytes = 4.4 ± 1.9%, t10,c12 CLA mature oocytes = 1.0 ± 0.7%, p = 0.05). Differences in myristic and eicotrienoic acids, saturated and unsaturated FA concentrations between oocytes and cumulus cells were detected (p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, the presence of t10,c12 CLA during maturation interfered on lipid metabolism improving bovine oocyte competence to develop into higher quality embryos.     

Effects of Plasma Urea Nitrogen Levels on the Bovine Oocyte Ability to Develop After In vitro Fertilization

The overall aim of the present study was to evaluate in vitro development ability of oocytes recovered from 56 Holstein Frisian heifers with low [group 1 (G1): <13 mg /dl], moderate [group 2 (G2): 13–16 mg /dl] and high [group 3 (G3): >16 mg /dl] plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) concentrations, to determine whether PUN concentrations affect the competence of oocytes to progress to blastocysts after in vitro fertilization. In vitro oocyte and embryo development was assessed by blastocyst rates, embryo total cell numbers and apoptosis. Blood samples for the determination of PUN were collected 24 h prior to collection of the ovaries at the slaughter. A total of 112 ovaries were collected at a local abattoir and oocytes (n = 697) were aspirated, in vitro matured and fertilized. On day 8, blastocysts were assigned to the terminal dUTP nick end labelling assay. Cleavage rates were significantly higher (p < 0.001) for groups 1 and 2 than for group 3 (i.e. 72.5% and 72.2% vs 61.7%, respectively). The proportion of fertilized oocytes that developed into blastocysts was higher (p < 0.05) for group 1 than for group 3 (34.0% vs 23.0%, respectively). Day 8 blastocysts showed higher total cell counts (p < 0.05) for group 1 than for group 3 (123.7 vs 76.3), and a higher (p < 0.05) total apoptotic cell rate was found in group 3 (25.9 and 19.0 vs 43.2 for G1, G2 and G3, respectively). In conclusion, the ability of oocytes from heifers with increased levels of PUN to develop to the blastocyst stage was significantly reduced when standard routines for in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture were followed. These detrimental effects can be mediated in part through direct effect of urea and/or by the metabolic products on the process of follicle-enclosed oocyte nuclear and cytoplasmic development.     

Adiponectin enhances in vitro development of swine embryos

Recent studies have shown that factors from adipose tissue influence and regulate the reproductive system. Hormones such as leptin and resistin are now known to regulate several reproductive processes. Adiponectin is the most abundant protein secreted by adipose tissue, and its circulating concentration is inversely related to adiposity and body mass index. Little is known about the involvement of adiponectin in reproduction. In the present study, the effect of recombinant adiponectin on the meiotic maturation and early embryo development in vitro was investigated, using porcine oocytes. Adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, were found to be expressed in porcine oocytes and cumulus cells of both small and large follicles. Both AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 were immunolocalized to cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), oocytes, and early developing embryos. When included in oocyte maturation medium for 46 h, adiponectin significantly decreased the frequency of meiotic immature oocytes derived from large follicles (3-6 mm) but not from small follicles (<3mm). From studies of oocytes matured in the presence of adiponectin and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway inhibitors MEK1 (PD98059), MEK1/2 (U0126), and p38MAPK (SB203580) it was concluded that adiponectin enhances oocyte maturation thought the p38MAPK pathway. Finally, a superior rate of embryo development to the blastocyst stage was achieved by embryos cultured in the presence of adiponectin. These results indicate that adiponectin has a positive effect on the meiotic maturation and in vitro embryo development of porcine oocytes and suggests a physiological role for this adipokine in early development in mammals.     

In vitro Development of Buffalo Oocytes in Media-containing Fluids from Different Size Class Follicles

Studies were conducted to investigate the effect of supplementation of fluid from different sized class [small (SFF, < 3 mm), medium (MFF, 3-8 mm) and large (LFF, > 8 mm)] of normal and cystic (CFF) ovarian follicles in oocyte culture media on oocyte maturation rate and embryo development in vitro and to test the efficacy of follicular fluid (FF) from different size classes as a whole oocyte maturation medium. Results suggested that FF were capable of developing buffalo oocytes to embryonic stage in vitro although its efficacy was lower than that of serum. Regardless of high maturation rates after in vitro maturation (IVM) in media containing FF or IVM in whole FF, low blastocyst rates were obtained after in vitro fertilization (IVF) and culture of embryos. Follicular fluid from small follicles had significantly (p < 0.05) higher potential of developing buffalo oocytes to embryonic stage in vitro than that from medium and large follicles. Cystic FF was not capable of supporting development of buffalo oocytes in vitro.