Soil Fertility Variability and Constraints on Village Scale Transects in Northern Burkina Faso

Soil variability has a profound impact on crop yields in low-input agriculture. The objectives of this study were to examine soil fertility variability and to identify potential soil constraints relating to farmers' conditions for agricultural production in the Sahelian zone of northern Burkina Faso. Surface soil (0-20 cm) and subsoil (20-100 cm) were sampled from 25 pedons on village-scale transects embracing three genetic soil units: two generations of sandy dune soils showing incipient development; a complex unit of clayey pediplain soils with duplex properties showing both alkaline and acid subsoil reaction; and hydromorphic, clayey valley bottom soils. Particle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable base cations and acidity, soluble base cations, organic carbon, nitrogen, total and available phosphorus, moisture constants, and bulk density were determined. Contents of organic carbon, total nitrogen, total and available phosphorus,and exchangeable potassium are low in all soils and are presumably major constraints.The sodium influenced clayey soils show high absolute variability; properties that vary are subsoil clay (5.8-38.5%), pH (5.8-10.0), cation exchange capacity (4.49-24.81 cmolc kg1), exchangeable sodium percentage (0-26), as well as electrical conductivity, structure, consistency, and available water holding capacity. The sandy soils are homogeneous and not as acid as elsewhere in the Sahel, presumably due to a dust influx. The soil fertility is generally low but highly variable, implying that constraints within production units may consist of multiple com binations of adverse chemical and physical properties, conceptually consistent with the low and variable millet yields. The variability also implies that soil character ization depends on the design of soil sampling, that average values are of doubtful use, that application of chemical fertilizers will produce very different results, and that there is no general scheme for correcting soil fertility. The application of lives tock manure will continue to be the best strategy for sustaining soil productivity.     

Long-Term Crop Rotation Effects on Organic Carbon,Nitrogen, and Phosphorus in Haplustoll Soil Fractions

Soil organic matter (SOM) or carbon (SOC) consists of a number of fractions (which can be separated by granulometric wet sieving) having different properties among them. Information on fraction nutrient distribution and long-term crop rotations is lacking for semiarid environments. The objective of this research was to study the agronomic effects on soil OC, N, and P fractions. The humified OC was the largest and least variable fraction of the SOC. Soil under continuous mixed pasture had higher OC contents than under annually tilled treatments. Similarly, soil total nitrogen under the cropped treatments decreased from 1.7 g N kg-¹ in noncultivated soils (reference plots) to 1.0, 0.7 an 0.7 g N kg-¹ under mixed pasture, pasture-crop, and wheat-crop respectively, in the fine soil fraction. The reference plots also showed significantly lower levels of organic phosphorus (P o ) in comparison to the other treatment (from 67.1 w g P o g-¹ to greater than 100 w g P o g-¹ in the fine fraction of the treatments and years). The noncultivated soil showed larger values of P o and inorganic P in the large-size granulometric fraction (0.1-2 mm) than in the soil fine fraction (0-01 mm). However, the rotation treatments had greater concentrations of P in the fine fraction. The P o from the coarse fraction appears to be the most labile and sensitive fraction to tillage and environmental conditions, and may be closely related to P availability.     

Susceptibility of field populations of adult Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) and Eretmocerus sp (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) to cotton insecticides in Burkina Faso (West Africa)

Research was conducted in 14 cotton fields (3-10 ha) selected in seven localities (two fields per locality) in Burkina Faso, with the objectives of: (1) estimating Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) population abundance, (2) assessing the levels of parasitism by Encarsia spp and Eretmocerus spp (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and (3) estimating the susceptibilities of the pest and of an Eretmocerus sp to the insecticides currently sprayed on cotton. Yellow sticky cards and a leaf-turning technique were used to estimate adult B. tabaci population densities. Yellow sticky cards were also used to estimate the densities of adult Eretmocerus sp and the susceptibilities of B. tabaci to insecticides. Leaf disk techniques were used to estimate B. tabaci red eye nymph populations and parasitism by Encarsia spp and Eretmoceus spp was evaluated using stereo-microscopy. A leaf cage technique was used to estimate the susceptibilities of Eretmocerus sp to insecticides. A mean of 6.5-27.4 adult B. tabaci were trapped per yellow sticky card and 5.5 to > 34.9 were counted per leaf using the leaf turning technique. There were 0.14-13 Eretmocerus sp trapped per yellow sticky card. The levels of parasitism varied between 36 and 87% by the end of the season and parasitism by Eretmocerus sp predominated in most of the fields. The susceptibilities of B. tabaci and Eretmocerus sp varied from field to field and with the insecticide tested.     

Relative abundance of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) and its parasitoids,and the impact of augmentative release of Eretmocerus spp. (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on the population dynamics of the pest in Burkina Faso (West Africa)

Whitefly infestations and parasitism were monitored year-round in overlapping cotton crops sown on three dates in Burkina Faso. The relative abundance of B. tabaci (Gennadius) and its parasitoids, Eretmocerus spp. and Encarsia spp., was recorded in control and insecticide-sprayed plots. Low B. tabaci populations developed during the first half of the rainy season. Pest populations increased when rainfall was ending, and the levels reached were higher in insecticide-treated plots (48 nymphs/leaf) than in control plots (25 nymphs/leaf). Parasitism reached 88.7% in control plots, and 53.7% in insecticide-treated plots. Eretmocerus spp. nymphs were more abundant than Encarsia spp. in both treated and control plots. A positive and significant curvilinear relationship was observed where % parasitism, on a linear scale, rose to a plateau with logarithmic increase in host density. In general % parasitism was correlated with the abundance of pest populations except in March and April where parasitism increased while B. tabaci populations decreased. In a separate experiment, adult Eretmocerus spp. were released into caged cotton plants to study the impact of augmentative releases of the parasites on the population dynamics of the pest. Pest densities increased from 1.47 nymphs/leaf to 39.4 nymphs/leaf in the control, but were reduced to 0.8 and 0.6 nymphs/leaf in the cages where, respectively, 4 and 8 parasitoids were released per plant. It appears that parasitism is an important factor reducing B. tabaci populations during and after the cotton-growing season, and that Eretmocerus spp. are promising biological control candidates against the pest in cotton.     

晋西沿黄地区水土流失动态变化及成因分析

晋西黄土丘陵沟壑区是黄河流域水土保持的重点治理地区 ,这里的河保偏兴、离柳、河津等地是山西省未来重点开发的经济重心区 ,将形成区域经济发展很有潜力的沿黄产业带 ,这里也是黄土高原贫困县集中连片分布的地区之一。造成本区经济特别是农村经济发展缓慢、社会贫困的主要原因是以水土流失为主的生态环境问题。本文根据野外调查和前人研究成果 ,重点分析了该区水土流失的动态变化和成因过程 ,揭示了水土流失的成因是自然因素和人为因素综合作用的结果 ,其中人为因素起主要作用。     

A simple tentative model of the losses caused by the Senegalese grasshopper,Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss 1877) to millet in the Sahel

Oedaleus senegalensis is a serious pest of millet in the Sahel, but the correlation to crop loss remains largely unknown. Therefore, the correlation between densities of O. senegalensis, defoliation level and millet yields was investigated in Niger in 2008, and a simple model to foresee the yield based on these parameters was developed. The yield was significantly correlated to both the density of O. senegalensis and the defoliation level on 17 September. The best model to foresee millet yield involved grasshopper density and cumulated rainfall and may be regarded a tentative method in O. senegalensis control.     

Phytosanitary Measures Against Larger Grain Borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), in International Trade

The establishment of P. truncatus in Africa has highlighted the inherent weakness of phytosanitary measures against exotic pests. Consideration is given to the need for phytosanitary measures and how patterns of international trade affect phytosanitary control. To prevent the spread of pests such as P. truncatus, large grain shipments can be subject to stringent pest control procedures. However, a significant proportion of grain movement in Africa, both within countries and across borders, occurs informally by both illicit, commercial movement of multiple truckloads of grain and legally by individuals carrying headloads via bush paths or small parcels on public transport. Attempts to locate and inspect the small lots would be impractical. Some recommendations are given on how the spread of P. truncatus in large-scale international trade can be slowed but otherwise it is accepted that in the long-term the prevention of further spread of P. truncatus in Africa is wholly unrealistic.     

Reclaiming saline areas in Khorat Basin (Northeast Thailand): Soil properties,species distribution,and germination of potential tolerant species

The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of native Thai species for reclaiming salt-affected areas in Thailand. Plant species diversity in Nakhon Ratchasima Province in northeast Thailand, and their soil characteristics (texture, electrical conductivity (EC_e), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH) were measured. A total of 19 species in 16 genera of 12 families were found, among which the most abundant species belonged to the Poaceae and Cyperaceae families. The highest values of EC_e were found near the surface (0–20?cm) with an average range between 30–80?dS?m^?1, while lower values in the range of 15–25?dS?m^?1 were found at lower depths (20–100?cm). Soil conditions in the subplots with plant coverage showed lower EC_e and ESP when compared to plots without vegetation. Seeds from the three most frequently occurring species, including Azima sarmentosa, Gymnosporia mekongensis, and Buchanania siamensis, were then tested for germination at different salinities. Seeds of all three species germinated at high salinities, from 25–45?dS?m^?1, with total germination ranging 40–90%. Together with the ability to germinate at high salinities, these native species showed deep, rapid root elongation, likely to escape high surface EC_e levels (approximately the top 30?cm). Planting these species in areas with vegetation coverage would aid successful reclamation of saline areas. Reclaiming salt-affected soils will not only improve local farmer’s economic status, but can also reduce the extent of deforestation, benefiting the entire ecosystem.     

托木尔峰南麓河流径流量变化特征及其对北极涛动(AO)事件的响应

由于冰雪融水很高的补给比重,本区河流径流量具有高度的季节集中性和多年径流变化的稳定性。温度变化的连续性和稳定性及其对冰雪消融的控制作用,使托木尔峰南麓以冰雪融水补给为主的河流径流量不如以降水补给为主的河流变化剧烈,1980年代中期以来增幅也明显小于以降水补给为主的河流。本区河流月径流量持续性很差,径流对气候变化具有较高的依赖性,并且对北极涛动(AO)事件具有较好的响应:强AO年较高的温度,促使了冰川消融加剧,以冰川融水补给为主的河流径流量明显增多;而弱AO年由于温度较低,冰川消融减少,河流径流量也明显减少。     

干旱区耕作土壤中重金属镉铅镍剖面分布及行为研究--以白银市区灰钙土为例

通过对干旱区长期污灌农田土壤中重金属的剖面分布及行为进行研究,结果表明:在长期灌溉与降水下渗水流作用下,重金属物质可发生不同程度的淋溶迁移;迁移程度依次为Cd>Ni>Pb;元素Cd具有显著的负指数迁移规律,而元素Pb、Ni规律性不明显.     

Soil application of azadirachtin and 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol to control western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae): translocation and persistence in bean plants

To study the systemic effects of active neem ingredients, the substrate of bean plants was treated with a 170 g kg(-1) azadirachtin (NeemAzal-U; Trifolio-M GmbH, Lahnau, Germany, registration pending). This product was used at a dose rate of 10 mg AZA (azadirachtin a) and 1.2 mg 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol (azadirachtin b) per treated bean plant. Afterwards, the translocation and persistence of AZA and 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol and the effects on western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), were studied. Residues of AZA and 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol from substrates with different contents of organic matter [pure culture substrate (CS), CS-sand mixture] and from various plant parts were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). The dissipation trends of AZA and 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol were similar within the same substrates. A slower decline of both active ingredients was measured with CS than with CS-sand mixture. Residue analysis of the bean plants showed that only small proportions of the initial amounts of AZA and 3-tigloyl-azadirachtol applied to the substrate were present in the plant (0.3-8.1%). Variable amounts of residues of the active components in relation to plant parts and time of analysis indicated a different translocation pattern for the two active ingredients. Higher residues of the active ingredients were found in roots and stems after neem application using CS, whereas higher residues were found in leaves after CS-sand mixture treatments. Mortality of F. occidentalis after NeemAzal-U soil applications reached up to 95% on CS-sand mixture, compared with 86% in CS.     

甜菜夜蛾能源物质积累及其飞行能耗与动态

针对甜菜夜蛾迁飞危害规律及其飞行相关的生理学尚缺乏深入研究的现状,采用吊飞试验及相关生理生化的方法,研究了成虫甘油酯和糖原积累的时间动态及不同日龄成虫飞行后能源物质的变化.结果显示,2日龄蛾虫体干重最高.羽化后2～5日龄雄蛾甘油酯含量显著高于初羽化雄蛾;雌蛾甘油酯积累与雄蛾类似,只有4日龄雌蛾甘油酯含量明显降低.雌蛾糖原含量从初羽化到2日龄急剧升高,然后逐日下降,5日龄又有所回升;雄蛾羽化后到1日龄糖原含量迅速升高,以后的日龄有所波动.不同日龄蛾飞行能源物质的消耗不同.2日龄的成虫飞行,糖类和脂类都有明显的消耗;1、4日龄飞行对糖类的消耗影响不明显.除1日龄雌蛾以外,1、4日龄成虫甘油酯都明显消耗.综合所获结果可以看出,甜菜夜蛾的飞行既能利用脂类,也能利用糖类作为飞行能源,甘油酯是甜菜夜蛾贮备和飞行的主要能源物质.     

Resistance and cross-resistance to neonicotinoid insecticides and spinosad in the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), has developed resistance to many insecticides used for its control, recently including imidacloprid, a neonicotinoid compound. Other neonicotinoids are now being deployed to control this pest. A key point in the strategies of resistance management is the monitoring of resistance and cross-resistance. In the summer of 2003, imidacloprid-resistant adult Colorado potato beetles collected from Long Island, New York, USA were bioassayed using topical applications of imidacloprid and nine other neonicotinoids. Compared to a standard susceptible strain, the Long Island beetles showed 309-fold resistance to imidacloprid, and lower levels of cross-resistance to all other neonicotinoids, despite these never having been used in the field, i.e., 59-fold to dinotefuran, 33-fold to clothianidin, 29-fold to acetamiprid, 28-fold to N-methylimidacloprid, 25-fold to thiacloprid, 15-fold to thiamethoxam, 10-fold to nitenpyram, but less than 2-fold to nicotine. In injection bioassays, high resistance to imidacloprid was also found (116-fold). Piperonyl butoxide partially suppressed resistance to imidacloprid, but the resistance level was still over 100-fold, indicating that other mechanisms were primarily responsible for resistance. Low levels of resistance (8- to 10-fold) were found to the nicotinic activator, spinosad, in an imidacloprid-resistant strain collected from the same field in 2004. The cross-resistance seen with all the neonicotinoids tested suggests that the rotation of imidacloprid with other neonicotinoids may not be an effective long-term resistance management strategy. Rotation with spinosad also carries some risk, but it is unlikely that spinosad resistance in this case is mechanistically related to that for the neonicotinoids.     

Ultrastructure of the secondary osmoregulatory canals in the scolex and neck region of Silurotaenia siluri (Batsch, 1786) (Cestoda: Proteocephalidae)

The secondary osmoregulatory canals in the scolex and neck region of Silurotaenia siluri, a parasite of the catfish Silurus glanis (L.), terminate below the tegument basal plasma membrane. The basal plasma membrane of the osmoregulatory canal syncytium is in tight contact with the tegument basal plasma membrane.     

Redescription of Eubothrium fragile (Rudolphi, 1802) and E. rugosum (Batsch, 1786) (Cestoda: Pseudophyllidea), parasites of fish in the Holarctic Region

Two fish cestodes, the little-known Eubothrium fragile (Rudolphi, 1802) and E. rugosum (Batsch, 1786), the type species of the genus Eubothrium Nybelin, 1922, are redescribed on the basis of new material from twaite shad, Alosa fallax (Lacépède, 1803), from England and burbot, Lota lota (Linnaeus, 1758), from Russia, respectively. The tapeworms are compared with two other species of the genus, E. crassum (Bloch, 1779) and E. salvelini (Schrank, 1790), common parasites of salmonid fish in the Holarctic. The most notable differential characters are the size and the shape of the scolex (smaller and oval in E. fragile), the shape of the apical disc (four or more indentations in E. crassum), the number and size of the testes (the largest and least numerous in E. rugosum), and the position and size of the vitelline follicles (almost entirely cortical in distribution in E. fragile and E. crassum versus largely medullary in E. rugosum and E. salvelini). A comparison of species has also shown the morphological similarity of the freshwater species (E. rugosum and E. salvelini) on one hand and those of marine origin, E. fragile and E. crassum, on the other, with the latter species occurring also in fresh waters. A key to the identification of the species studied is also provided.     

Tomato early blight (Alternaria solani): the pathogen, genetics, and breeding for resistance

Alternaria solani causes diseases on foliage (early blight), basal stems of seedlings (collar rot), stems of adult plants (stem lesions), and fruits (fruit rot) of tomato. Early blight is the most destructive of these diseases and hence receives considerable attention in breeding. For over 60 years, breeding for early blight resistance has been practiced, but the development of cultivars with high levels of resistance has been hampered by the lack of sources of strong resistance in the cultivated tomato and by the quantitative expression and polygenic inheritance of the resistance. In some accessions of wild species, high levels of early blight resistance have been found, but breeding lines still have unfavorable horticultural traits from the donor parent. Recently, the first linkage maps with loci controlling early blight resistance have been developed based on interspecific crosses. These maps may facilitate marker-assisted selection. This overview presents the current knowledge about the A. solani–tomato complex with respect to its biology, genetics, and breeding.