Attenuation of a virulent type 2 bovine viral diarrhea virus

The purpose of this study was to produce an attenuated bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) type 2 strain as a tool for identifying potential virulence markers in the BVDV2 genome. The attenuation of the virulent strain, BVDV2-24515, was accomplished by in vivo and in vitro passage. The strain was initially used to infect an elk (Cervus elaphus) [J. Wildl. Dis. 35 (1999) 671], re-isolated at 7 days post-inoculation from serum, and then subsequently passaged 56 times in cell culture. Two groups of calves were inoculated intranasally with either BVDV2-24515 or the putative attenuated virus, designated BVDV2-LATT. Calves inoculated with BVDV2-24515 had cumulative clinical scores which ranged from 6 to 53. Clinical signs in these calves consisted of anorexia, depression, dehydration, diarrhea (±bloody), and pneumonia. Several calves developed leukocytopenia, primarily a neutrocytopenia, and presented lesions of enteritis or pneumonia at necropsy. In contrast, cattle inoculated with BVDV2-LATT had cumulative clinical scores which ranged from 0 to 2. This was not significantly different from that of controls which received no virus (range: 0–1). Calves inoculated with BVDV2-LATT produced high neutralizing antibody titers against BVDV2. Thus, in addition to its potential use as a tool for identifying virulence markers, the attenuated virus is also worthy of further study as a candidate virus for inclusion in a modified-live vaccine.     

Prevalence of serum antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 and bovine viral diarrhea virus in beef cattle in Uruguay

Our objective was to determine the prevalence of serum antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus in beef cattle in Uruguay. A random sample of 230 herds selected with probability proportional to population size based on the number of cattle was chosen from a list frame of all registered livestock farms as of June 1999. Sera from up to 10 heifers, cows and bulls (up to 30 sera total per herd) were collected on selected farms between March 2000 and March 2001 and evaluated by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Overall, 6358 serum samples were evaluated. We also collected data on previous diagnosis of BHV-1 or BVD infections and on the use of vaccines against these agents.

The estimated prevalence of exposure to BHV-1 and BVD at the herd level for the Uruguayan beef population was 99% and 100%, respectively. Approximately 37% of beef cattle in Uruguay have been exposed to BHV-1 and 69% to BVD virus. Only 3% of beef herds in Uruguay regularly (typically, annually) use vaccines against either of these agents.     

牛病毒性腹泻病毒JY株分离鉴定

为了对疑似含有牛病毒性腹泻病毒(bovine viral diarrhea virus,BVDV)的种公牛精液进行检测并分离病毒,本研究采用细胞培养、免疫荧光及纳米PCR技术,对采自吉林省某牛病毒性腹泻(BVD)发病牛场中使用的种公牛精液进行检测与病毒分离。共采公牛精液8份,接种牛肾细胞系(MDBK)进行分离培养。分离得到阳性毒株为非致细胞病变(NCP)型,测得第4代病毒效价为10^6.25TCID₅₀/mL。纳米PCR检测5′-UTR和E2基因,测序后与GenBank上已发表的BVDV流行毒株核酸序列比对和进化分析。结果表明,分离毒株属于BVDV-1型,与BVDVJL株亲缘关系最近,5′-UTR核苷酸同源性为100%,E2基因核苷酸同源性为99.3%,命名为BVDVJY株。研究显示,本次采集的种公牛精液携带BVDV-1型毒株。该牛场BVD的发生疑似与种公牛精液带毒有关,对牛场BVD的防治起到警示作用。     

Genetic and antigenic characterization of bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 2 isolated from cattle in India

Previous studies have shown that bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 1 (BVDV-1) subtype b is predominantly circulating in Indian cattle. During testing for exotic pestiviruses between 2007 and 2010, BVDV-2 was identified by real time RT-PCR in two of 1446 cattle blood samples originating from thirteen states of India. The genetic analysis of the isolated virus in 5′ UTR, N^pro, entire structural genes (C, E^rns, E1 and E2), nonstructural genes NS2-3 besides 3′ UTR demonstrated that the nucleotide and amino acid sequences showed highest similarity with BVDV-2. The entire 5′ and 3′ UTR consisted of 387 and 204 nucleotides, respectively, and an eight nucleotide repeat motif was found twice within the variable part of 3′ UTR that may be considered as a characteristic of BVDV-2. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the cattle isolate and earlier reported goat BVDV-2 isolate fall into separate clades within BVDV-2a subtype. Antigenic typing with monoclonal antibodies verified the cattle isolate also as BVDV-2. In addition, cross-neutralization tests using antisera raised against Indian BVDV strains circulating in ruminants (cattle, sheep, goat and yak) displayed significant antigenic differences only between BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 strains. This is the first identification of BVDV-2 in Indian cattle that may have important implications for immunization strategies and molecular epidemiology of BVD.     

Endemic infections of bovine viral diarrhea virus genotypes 1b and 2a isolated from cattle in Japan between 2014 and 2020

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a causative agent of bovine viral diarrhea. In Japan, a previous study reported that subgenotype 1b viruses were predominant until 2014. Because there is little information regarding the recent epidemiological status of BVDV circulating in Japan, we performed genetic characterization of 909 BVDV isolates obtained between 2014 and 2020. We found that 657 and 252 isolates were classified as BVDV-1 and BVDV-2, respectively, and that they were further subdivided into 1a (35 isolates, 3.9%), 1b (588, 64.7%), 1c (34, 3.7%), and 2a (252, 27.7%). Phylogenetic analysis using entire E2 coding sequence revealed that a major domestic cluster in Japan among BVDV-1b and 2a viruses were unchanged from a previous study conducted from 2006 to 2014. These results provide updated information concerning the epidemic strain of BVDV in Japan, which would be helpful for appropriate vaccine selection.     

新疆某牧场牛病毒性腹泻的诊断及防控

为了查明新疆某规模化牧场犊牛发病死亡的原因,本试验采用现场流行病学调查结合实验室检测方法进行研究。结果表明,该病的发病率为39.43％,病死率为32.14％,易感牛群主要是3月龄以内的犊牛,具有典型BVD症状,病理变化以消化道症状为主,病死牛肠道有大量出血点、肠黏膜溃疡、脱落、肠壁菲薄、胃肠道内容物中有大量气泡、肠系膜淋巴结肿大等;RT-PCR检测结果表明4份病死犊牛的肠组织、32份发病犊牛和3份（3/10）同群亚健康犊牛肠内容物核酸均为阳性;序列对比分析结果表明,该牧场感染的病毒为BVDV-1a型,与Genbank上登陆的部分BVDV-1型参考株的同源性为88.0％-98.4％,与部分BVDV-2型参考株的同源性为31.5％-43.7％;结合实验室检测及临床防控需求,牧场采取了净化阳性牛结合BVD-IBR二联疫苗免疫的方式有效地控制了该病的进一步发生。     

Genetic and antigenic characterization of bovine viral diarrhea viruses isolated from cattle in Hokkaido,Japan

In our previous study, we genetically analyzed bovine viral diarrhea viruses (BVDVs) isolated from 2000 to 2006 in Japan and reported that subgenotype 1b viruses were predominant. In the present study, 766 BVDVs isolated from 2006 to 2014 in Hokkaido, Japan, were genetically analyzed to understand recent epidemics. Phylogenetic analysis based on nucleotide sequences of the 5′-untranslated region of viral genome revealed that 766 isolates were classified as genotype 1 (BVDV-1; 544 isolates) and genotype 2 (BVDV-2; 222). BVDV-1 isolates were further divided into BVDV-1a (93), 1b (371) and 1c (80) subgenotypes, and all BVDV-2 isolates were grouped into BVDV-2a subgenotype (222). Further comparative analysis was performed with BVDV-1a, 1b and 2a viruses isolated from 2001 to 2014. Phylogenetic analysis based on nucleotide sequences of the viral glycoprotein E2 gene, a major target of neutralizing antibodies, revealed that BVDV-1a, 1b and 2a isolates were further classified into several clusters. Cross-neutralization tests showed that BVDV-1b isolates were antigenically different from BVDV-1a isolates, and almost BVDV-1a, 1b and 2a isolates were antigenically similar among each subgenotype and each E2 cluster. Taken together, BVDV-1b viruses are still predominant, and BVDV-2a viruses have increased recently in Hokkaido, Japan. Field isolates of BVDV-1a, 1b and 2a show genetic diversity on the E2 gene with antigenic conservation among each subgenotype during the last 14 years.     

1株牛病毒性腹泻病毒河北株的分离鉴定与遗传演化分析

从河北省保定市某养殖场采集疑似患病毒性腹泻/黏膜病(BVD)的犊牛粪便6份,进行牛病毒性腹泻病毒(BVDV)的分离培养,根据GenBank上登录的BVDV5'-UTR片段设计引物,利用RT-PCR技术对目的片段进行扩增,扩增得到的目的基因片段送至公司测序,测序结果进行同源性分析和系统进化树构建.结果:分离出1株致细胞病...     

牛病毒性腹泻病毒E2蛋白的截短表达与鉴定

利用牛病毒性腹泻病毒（BVDV）BA株接种MDBK细胞，提取病毒RNA。参照已发表的BVDV基因组序列，利用Oligo6生物学软件设计扩增E2基因的1对引物，引入酶切位点并去掉E2蛋白的跨膜区及疏水区。通过RT-PCR扩增了长约1000bp的E2基因片段，克隆到pMD18-T载体上，酶切并测序鉴定。然后将目的片段进一步定向克隆到pET30a表达载体，转化BL21表达菌。取转化菌培养，并用IPTG诱导，获得了以包涵体形式表达的重组蛋白。将重组蛋白变性、纯化和复性后，用免疫印迹与间接ELISA检测表明纯化的重组蛋白具有良好的免疫原性，为牛病毒性腹泻病毒诊断试剂的研制奠定了基础。     

牛病毒性腹泻病毒基因2型代表株全基因组序列分析

为了解我国牛病毒性腹泻(BVD)的分子流行病学情况,本研究对分离的3株牛病毒性腹泻病毒基因2型(BVDV-2)代表株全基因组进行序列分析,应用RT-PCR法分段扩增3株BVDV-2(XJ-04、SD-09和QH-09)的全基因组序列,共分为18个片段:A～Q以及5'-UTR和3'-UTR的部分序列。除5'-UTR和3'-UTR部分序列外,A～Q基因片段末端相互重叠。经序列拼接获得3株全基因组序列,全长均为12 284 bp。将测序结果与GenBank登录的瘟病毒科代表毒株序列、自我裂解酶(Npro)、结构蛋白(C、Erns、E1、E2)以及标准株BVDV-1 NADL和BVDV-2 890进行核苷酸以及氨基酸序列同源性分析。结果表明:XJ-04、SD-09和QH-09的全基因组序列同源性高于99.6%,3株BVDV-2分离株与890和NewYork93株亲缘关系最近,属于BVDV-2a亚型。在致细胞病变型的XJ-04、SD-09、QH-09株的NS2/3基因上无外源基因的插入。本研究分离的BVDV-2株为国内首次鉴定国内分离株全基因组序列,为我国BVD的分子流行病调查提供依据。     

Associations between Campylobacter fetus, Haemophilus somnus, Leptospira hardjo and bovine viral diarrhea virus antibody titers in dairy cattle from a California herd

In a cross-sectional study, the associations of age, serological status against Campylobacter fetus (CF), Haemophilus somnus (HS) and Leptospira hardjo (LH) with the seroprevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in dairy cattle were evaluated. Six hundred and thirty cattle from a herd in Tulare county of California were included in the study. Blood samples from the cattle were collected in December 1986. Enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) was used to determine the positive or negative status of cows against CF, HS, LH and BVDV antigens. Loglinear analysis was used to describe the relationships of four categorical variables with the seroprevalence of BVDV. The final loglinear model was interpreted as a logit model and obtained by conditioning on explanatory variables in the model found to relate significantly with BVDV seropositivity. The hierarchical logit model included two two-way interactions (BVDV × HS and BVDV × LH) and a three-way interaction (BVDV × CF × age). HS-seronegative cattle had 4.7 times greater odds of being BVDV-seropositive compared with HS-seropositive cattle. In contrast, LH-seropositive cattle had 2.7 times increased odds of BVDV seropositivity compared with LH-seronegative cattle. The presence of the three-way interaction term in the model involving age, CF and BVDV seroprevalence implies that among heifers, CF-seronegative and CF-seropositive animals had about the same odds of BVDV seropositivity (e.g. adjusted odds ratios = 20.5 vs. 24.5), whereas, among cows, CF-seronegative animals had at least twice the odds of being BVDV-seropositive than those of CF-seropositive animals (e.g. adjusted odds ratios = 23.0 vs. 11.0).     

Genetic characterization of bovine viral diarrhea virus strains in Beijing,China and innate immune responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in persistently infected dairy cattle

To acquire epidemiological data on the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and identify cattle persistently infected (PI) with this virus, 4,327 samples from Holstein dairy cows were screened over a four-year period in Beijing, China. Eighteen BVD viruses were isolated, 12 from PI cattle. Based on genetic analysis of their 5''-untranslated region (5''-UTR), the 18 isolates were assigned to subgenotype BVDV-1m, 1a, 1d, 1q, and 1b. To investigate the innate immune responses in the peripheral-blood mononuclear cells of PI cattle, the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors, interferon-α (IFN-α), IFN-β, myxovirus (influenza virus) resistance 1 (MX1), and interferon stimulatory gene 15 (ISG15) was assessed by qPCR. When compared with healthy cattle, the expression of TLR-7, IFN-α, and IFN-β mRNA was downregulated, but the expression of MX1 and ISG-15 mRNA was upregulated in PI cattle. Immunoblotting analysis revealed that the expression of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and IRF-7 was lower in PI cattle than in healthy cattle. Thus, BVDV-1m and 1a are the predominant subgenotypes in the Beijing region, and the strains are highly divergent. Our findings also suggest that the TLR-7/IRF-7 signaling pathway plays a role in evasion of host restriction by BVDV.     

牛病毒性腹泻病毒HB-DCZ株E0基因的克隆与抗原表位预测

根据GenBank上发表的牛病毒性腹泻病毒(BVDV) Oregon C24V株E0基因的核苷酸序列设计1对特异性引物,应用PCR技术扩增BVDV HB-DCZ株E0基因.将PCR产物克隆到pMD18-T载体,克隆产物进行序列测定与分析.结果显示,HB-DCZ cDNA体外扩增获得特异性条带,约为687 bp.序列测定结果表明,HB-DCZ株E0基因由681个核苷酸组成,编码227个氨基酸.与已公开发表的BVDV其他毒株核苷酸和推导氨基酸序列同源性相似顺序依次为:CCSYD 99％和98.7％、QHZK10 98.4％和97.8％、VEDEVAC 98.2％和97.8％、Oregon C24V80.9％和89.9％、Yak 74.2％和81.1％.HB-DCZ与CCSYD、QHZK10以及VEDEVAC株的遗传距离较近,与国际标准毒株C24V、Yak株的遗传距离较远.运用Kyte-Doolittle方案预测氨基酸的亲水性,采用Karplus-Schulz方案预测蛋白质的柔性区域,按Jameson-Wolf方案预测抗原指数,利用Emini方案预测蛋白质的表面可及性.对预测结果综合分析,推测最有可能的B细胞表位位于N-端6～17、23～29、47～53、59～68、70～81、97～109、114～122、127～134、137～143、165～172、186～198和213～220.     

Differential expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines during experimental infection with low or high virulence bovine viral diarrhea virus in beef calves

The objective was to compare the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12, IL-15) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) cytokines, after experimental infection with low or high virulence noncytopathic (ncp) bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Thirty BVDV-naïve, beef calves were intranasally inoculated with low (LV; n = 10, SD-1) or high (HV; n = 10, 1373) virulence ncp BVDV or with BVDV-free cell culture medium (Control, n = 10). Calves were euthanized on day 5 post-inoculation, and tracheo-bronchial lymph node and spleen samples were collected for mRNA expression through quantitative-RT-PCR. mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IFN-γ) and anti-inflammatory (IL-4 and IL-10) cytokines were up-regulated in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes of HV, but not in LV, compared to the control group (P < 0.05). IL-12 mRNA level was up-regulated in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes of both LV and HV groups (P ≤ 0.05). A significant up-regulation of IL-15 mRNA was observed in tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes for LV calves (P < 0.002), but not for HV calves. Experimental inoculation with BVDV-2 1373 stimulated significant mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, inoculation with BVDV-1a SD-1 only resulted in up-regulation of IL-12 and IL-15 mRNA, which is associated with activation of macrophages and NK cells during innate immune response.     

Experimental infection of early pregnant cows with bovine viral diarrhea virus: Transmission of virus to the reproductive tract and conceptus

The objective of this study was to chronologically investigate the effect of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection on early pregnant cows before placenta formation. Six cows were intravenously inoculated with either BVDV (treated, n = 4) or growth medium (control, n = 2) (day 0) at day 26 of pregnancy. Two treated cows and one control cow were euthanized on day 3 post-infection and the remaining animals were euthanized on day 6. BVDV was isolated from maternal tissues such as lymphoid or reproductive tissues of treated animals on days 3 and 6 post-infection. Additionally, one treated cow autopsied on day 6 post-infection had evidence of infectious BVDV in the allantoic membranes, allantoic fluid and embryos. In three treated cows, a significant decline in progesterone concentration was also observed post-infection while in control cows they remained constant. Therefore, BVDV can infect bovine embryos before placenta formation and may affect progesterone profiles in cows during early pregnancy.     

Evaluation of a blocking ELISA for the detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) antibodies in serum and milk

The performance characteristics of a blocking ELISA test applied to serum and individual milk for the detection of antibodies to bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) were assessed using 1189 matched milk/serum samples collected from cows of 42 dairy herds located in Brittany (west of France). This test was based on a monoclonal antibody directed against non-structural protein NS2-3 of pestiviruses. All tests were performed blind. For each type of sample, negative/positive cut-off values were determined using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. Sensitivity and specificity were estimated using the virus neutralisation test as a reference. For sera, the ROC analysis provided a negative/positive inhibition percentage cut-off value of 50% giving a sensitivity and a specificity of 96.9 and 97.8%. For individual milk samples, the cut-off was fixed at 30%, leading to a sensitivity and a specificity of 96.9 and 97.3%. Using this test, a good overall agreement was found between results obtained on matched milk/serum samples (Kappavalue=0.95). The present results indicate that this blocking ELISA test is reliable enough for use in a mass screening and control scheme on BVDV.     

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus in beef cattle herds of Yucatan, Mexico: seroprevalence and risk factors

A survey of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infection was carried out from June 2001 to July 2002 in a non-vaccinated beef cattle population from the livestock region of Yucatan, Mexico, to assess seroprevalence and identify risk factors related to seroprevalence. The aim was also to estimate the intra-herd correlation (r_e) and design effect (D) of BVDV seropositivity. Cattle were selected by a two-stage cluster sampling. Blood samples were collected from 560 animals originating from 40 herds. Sera were tested for antibodies against BVDV using an indirect ELISA test. The sensitivity and specificity of the test was 97.9 and 99.7%, respectively. Risk factors regarding the herd and each animal sampled were recorded through a personal interview at the time of blood sampling. Twenty-four of the 40 herds had at least one seropositive animal. The animal true seroprevalence was estimated as 14%. The marginal logistic regression model used to describe the data found a significant (p < 0.05) association of herd size–cow-origin interaction. The interaction was due to a higher risk of seropositivity in the category of herds with ≤100 animals and purchased cows (OR = 1) as compared to herds with ≤100 animals and cows born in the farm (OR = 0.23). Seropositivity between cows purchased and cows born in the farm was similar for herd sizes of 101–196 and >196 animals. The r_e and D values were 0.17 ± 0.05 and 3.16 ± 0.57, respectively.     

Practices and opinions of New Zealand beef cattle farmers towards bovine viral diarrhoea control in relation to real and perceived herd serological status

ABSTRACT

Aims: To investigate the seroprevalence of infection with bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) virus among 75 beef herds and seroconversion in cattle during early pregnancy, and to determine the practices and opinions of farmers towards BVD control and their association with real and perceived herd serological status.

Methods: Blood samples were collected before mating in 75 beef herds across New Zealand from 15 unvaccinated heifers that had delivered their first calf that season. Serum samples were tested for BVD antibodies using ELISA individually, and after pooling samples for each farm. Animals that were antibody-negative were retested at either pregnancy diagnosis or weaning. Farmers were asked to complete a detailed survey about herd demographics, BVD testing and vaccination practices, and opinions towards national BVD control.

Results: Based on the pooled serum antibody ELISA results, there were 28/75 (37%) negative herds, 15/75 (20%) suspect herds, and 32/75 (43%) positive herds. Of 1,117 animals sampled 729 (65.3%) tested negative for BVD virus antibodies; when retested, 47/589 (8.0%) animals from 13/55 (24%) herds had seroconverted. Among 71 famers providing survey responses 11 (15%) believed their herd was infected with BVD, 24 (34%) were unsure and 36 (51%) did not think their herd was infected. Only 19/71 (18%) farmers had performed any BVD testing within the past 5 years and 50/70 (71%) had not vaccinated any cattle for BVD. Support for national BVD eradication programme was strong in 51/71 (56%) respondents, but the biggest challenge to BVD control was considered to be famer compliance. Compared to farmers who did not think their herd was infected, more farmers who thought BVD was present in their herds had previously tested for BVD, would consider testing all replacement calves, and would support establishing a national BVD database; fewer would consider purchasing BVD tested or vaccinated cattle only.

Conclusions and clinical relevance: Only 15% of the beef farmers in this study believed their herds were infected with BVD virus and few of them had undertaken BVD screening. Nevertheless many were supportive of implementing a national BVD control programme. It is likely that the lack of farmer awareness around BVD and the failure of farmers to recognise the potential impacts in their herds are hindering progress in controlling the disease in New Zealand. There are opportunities for New Zealand veterinarians to be more proactive in helping beef farmers explore BVD management options.     

Effects in calves of mixed infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus and several other bovine viruses

The objective of this study was to verify whether a mixed infection in calves with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and other bovine viruses, such as bovid herpesvirus-4 (BHV-4), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3) and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) virus, would influence the pathogenesis of the BVDV infection sufficiently to result in the typical form of mucosal disease being produced.

Accordingly, two experiments were undertaken. In one experiment calves were first infected with BVDV and subsequently with BHV-4 and IBR virus, respectively. The second experiment consisted in a simultaneous infection of calves with BVDV and PI-3 virus or BVDV and IBR virus.

From the first experiment it seems that BVDV infection can be reactivated in calves by BHV-4 and IBR virus. Evidence of this is that BVDV, at least the cytopathic (CP) strain, was recovered from calves following superinfection. Moreover, following such superinfection the calves showed signs which could most likely be ascribed to the pathogenetic activity of BVDV. Superinfection, especially by IBR virus, created a more severe clinical response in calves that were initially infected with CP BVDV, than in those previously given the non-cytopathic (NCP) biotype of the virus. Simultaneous infection with PI-3 virus did not seem to modify to any significant extent the pathogenesis of the experimentally induced BVDV infection whereas a severe clinical response was observed in calves when simultaneous infection was made with BVDV and IBR virus.