Large-Scale Spatial Patterns of Grassland Community Properties in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,China

Mapping large-scale spatial patterns of grassland community properties in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China and learning how they are affected by environmental factors are vital to understand grassland changes in response to climate change and human activity. We collected data on six grassland community properties across 198 sample plots in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region: height, coverage, aboveground biomass (AGB), belowground biomass (BGB), soil bulk density (SBD), and species number (SN). We then analyzed the relationship between these and a range of environmental factors, including elevation, mean annual temperature (MAT), mean annual precipitation (MAP), ≥ 10 C annual accumulated temperature, humidity index, and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), using correlation and regression analysis. On the basis of the regression equation, we undertook a multifactor model using ArcGIS, in which different weights were assigned to each factor according to the degree of fitness between the estimated results and measured data. We then mapped the spatial distribution of grassland community properties in Inner Mongolia. We found a significant correlation between all of the grassland community properties and environmental factors measured (P < 0.01). In terms of spatial patterns, SN, height, coverage, AGB, and BGB were positively correlated with the transition from desert grassland to meadow grassland. The community properties model provided good results, with average accuracies of 53.05–90.21% and R² values of 0.40–0.68 (P < 0.01) across the six grassland community properties. The multifactor comprehensive model provides significant correlation between the predicted results and measured data. Therefore, this could be used as a basis for future studies on Inner Mongolia grasslands and to understand temporal and spatial changes of grassland in response to human activity and climate change.     

Leafy Spurge Suppression by Flea Beetles in The Little Missouri Drainage Basin,USA

The Ecological Area-wide Management Leafy Spurge, or TEAM Leafy Spurge, began collecting and redistributing flea beetles (Aphthona spp.) to research/demonstration sites and landowners throughout the Little Missouri River drainage basin to control leafy spurge in 1998. A study to evaluate the change over time of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) phytosociological characteristics following release of flea beetles was initiated in 2002 on leafy spurge–infested pasture and rangeland in the Little Missouri River drainage of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. A total of 292 flea beetle release sites were analyzed in June and July 2002 and 2003 for leafy spurge stem density, foliar cover, flea beetle density, and vegetation composition. Leafy spurge stem density suppression was evident at 91% of the study sites. On two-thirds of the study sites stem density was reduced from greater than 100 stems·m⁻¹ to less than 25 stems·m⁻¹. Leafy spurge foliar cover was less than 5% on approximately two-thirds of the flea beetle release sites and less than 25% on over 90% of the release sites. Area of observed leafy spurge suppression ranged from 0 m² to 30000 m². Approximately 40% of the release sites had leafy spurge suppression ranging from 1000 m² to 5000 m², and 14% of the release sites had greater than 10000 m² of leafy spurge control. Plant community composition following leafy spurge suppression was characteristic of native plant communities that had not been burned or grazed. Flea beetles effectively reduced leafy spurge stem density and cover in 4–5 yr across a variety of locations and corresponding environmental conditions, both within the Little Missouri River drainage and in selected nearby locations.     

Effects of Increasing Stocking Density on the Performance and Ileal Microbiota of Broilers

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of increasing stocking density under suitable environmental conditions on the performance and ileal microbiota of broilers. A total of 108 Arbor Acres male broilers (28 days old) were allocated to a normal stocking density (NSD, normal stocking density; 31 kg/m²) and a maximum allowed stocking density group (MSD, maximum stocking density; 39 kg/m²). All birds were reared at a constant temperature of 21°C. At 42 days of age, bacterial DNA was extracted from ileal content, and the V3–4 hypervariable region of 16S rRNA was amplified. Increasing stocking density had no significant effect on average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and feed conversion ratio (P>0.05). The alpha and beta diversities of the ileal microbiomes did not differ significantly between the NSD and MSD groups; however, increasing stocking density altered the composition of ileal microbiota. The relative abundance of Lactobacillales, including Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and Streptococcus, significantly decreased in MSD broilers, compared with NSD broilers. The present results suggest that even under suitable environmental conditions, an increase in stocking density to a level of 39 kg/m² may disturb the composition of ileal microbiota in broilers. Further studies are needed to determine the reasons and the potential consequences for animal health and physiology.     

Optimizing the size of the area surveyed for monitoring a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) population in the Swiss Alps by means of photographic capture–recapture

We studied the influence of surveyed area size on density estimates by means of camera‐trapping in a low‐density felid population (1–2 individuals/100 km²). We applied non‐spatial capture–recapture (CR) and spatial CR (SCR) models for Eurasian lynx during winter 2005/2006 in the northwestern Swiss Alps by sampling an area divided into 5 nested plots ranging from 65 to 760 km². CR model density estimates (95% CI) for models M₀ and M_h decreased from 2.61 (1.55–3.68) and 3.6 (1.62–5.57) independent lynx/100 km², respectively, in the smallest to 1.20 (1.04–1.35) and 1.26 (0.89–1.63) independent lynx/100 km², respectively, in the largest area surveyed. SCR model density estimates also decreased with increasing sampling area but not significantly. High individual range overlaps in relatively small areas (the edge effect) is the most plausible reason for this positive bias in the CR models. Our results confirm that SCR models are much more robust to changes in trap array size than CR models, thus avoiding overestimation of density in smaller areas. However, when a study is concerned with monitoring population changes, large spatial efforts (area surveyed ≥760 km²) are required to obtain reliable and precise density estimates with these population densities and recapture rates.     

Is Pile Seeding Wyoming Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) an Effective Alternative to Broadcast Seeding?

Sagebrush plays an important role in the ecological functions of sagebrush steppe plant communities and is a necessary component of habitat for a variety of wildlife including greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). At lower elevations, increased fire frequency associated with exotic annual grass invasion has heightened the need for effective sagebrush restoration strategies, but existing techniques have been largely ineffective. Our objective was to evaluate “pile seeding” (placing mature seed heads on the ground) of Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) as an alternative to broadcast seeding. We used a randomized block design (n = 5) replicated in 2 yr at two contrasting ecological sites in southeastern Oregon. Treatments applied to 100 × 1.5 m plots included 1) pile seeding (four mature seed heads · pile^--1 × 10 piles · plot^-1), 2) broadcast seeding (0.5 kg pure live seed [PLS] · ha^-1), and 3) natural recovery (i.e., nonseeded). Planting occurred in fall 2008 and 2009, and plots were monitored for seedling establishment for three or two growing seasons postplanting. Seedling density was estimated at the plot scale within a 50-cm radius of each seed head pile (“island scale”). In the year following planting, sagebrush seedling density at the plot scale was up to 60-fold higher (P ≤ 0.05) in pile-seeded plots compared to natural recovery and broadcast plots. Seedling mortality was high (up to 98% reduction in density) for pile-seeded plots between the first and second growing seasons postplanting and differences between broadcast and pile-seeded plots dissipated by 2–3 yr postplanting. Although pile-seeding had higher initial density than broadcast seeding, neither technique had sufficient multiyear survival to suggest restoration efficacy at the plot scale. Seedling density at the island scale suggests that pile-seeding may be useful for establishing sagebrush islands, depending on year conditions. Research is needed to determine strategies capable of increasing long-term sagebrush seedling survival.     

Understory Cover Responses to Piñon–Juniper Treatments Across Tree Dominance Gradients in the Great Basin

Piñon (Pinus spp.) and juniper (Juniperus spp.) trees are reduced to restore native vegetation and avoid severe fires where they have expanded into sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) communities. However, what phase of tree infilling should treatments target to retain desirable understory cover and avoid weed dominance? Prescribed fire and tree felling were applied to 8–20-ha treatment plots at 11 sites across the Great Basin with a tree-shredding treatment also applied to four Utah sites. Treatments were applied across a tree infilling gradient as quantified by a covariate tree dominance index (TDI = tree cover/&lsqb;tree + shrub + tall perennial grass cover]). Mixed model analysis of covariance indicated that treatment × covariate interactions were significant (P &spilt; 0.05) for most vegetation functional groups 3 yr after treatment. Shrub cover was most reduced with fire at any TDI or by mechanical treatment after infilling resulted in over 50% shrub cover loss (TDI &spigt; 0.4). Fire increased cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) cover by an average of 4.2% for all values of TDI. Cutting or shredding trees generally produced similar responses and increased total perennial herbaceous and cheatgrass cover by an average of 10.2% and 3.8%, at TDIs ≥ 0.35 and ≥ 0.45. Cheatgrass cover estimated across the region was &spilt; 6% after treatment, but two warmer sites had high cheatgrass cover before (19.2% and 27.2%) and after tree reduction (26.6% and 50.4%). Fuel control treatments are viable management options for increasing understory cover across a range of sites and tree cover gradients, but should be accompanied by revegetation on warmer sites with depleted understories where cheatgrass is highly adapted. Shrub and perennial herbaceous cover can be maintained by mechanically treating at lower TDI. Perennial herbaceous cover is key for avoiding biotic and abiotic thresholds in this system through resisting weed dominance and erosion.     

Appropriate Sample Sizes for Monitoring Burned Pastures in Sagebrush Steppe: How Many Plots are Enough,and Can One Size Fit All?

Statistically defensible information on vegetation conditions is needed to guide rangeland management decisions following disturbances such as wildfire, often for heterogeneous pastures. Here we evaluate sampling effort needed to achieve a robust statistical threshold using > 2 000 plots sampled on the 2015 Soda Fire that burned across 75 pastures and 113 000 ha in Idaho and Oregon. We predicted that the number of plots required to generate a threshold of standard error/mean ≤ 0.2 (TSR, threshold sampling requirement) for plant cover within pasture units would vary between sampling methods (rapid ocular versus grid-point intercept) and among plot sizes (1, 6, or 531 m²), as well as relative to topography, elevation, pasture size, spatial complexity of soils, vegetation treatments (herbicide or seeding), and dominance by exotic annual or perennial grasses. Sampling was adequate for determining exotic annual and perennial grass cover in about half of the pastures. A tradeoff in number versus size of plots sampled was apparent, whereby TSR was attainable with less area searched using smaller plot sizes (1 compared with 531 m²) in spite of less variability between larger plots. TSR for both grass types decreased as their dominance increased (0.5–1.5 plots per % cover increment). TSR decreased for perennial grass but increased for exotic annual grass with higher elevations. TSR increased with standard deviation of elevation for perennial grass sampled with grid-point intercept. Sampling effort could be more reliably predicted from landscape variables for the grid-point compared with the ocular sampling method. These findings suggest that adjusting the number and size of sample plots within a pasture or burn area using easily determined landscape variables could increase monitoring efficiency and effectiveness.     

Trampling and Cover Effects on Soil Compaction and Seedling Establishment in Reseeded Pasturelands Over Time

A field study in Randall County, Texas, was conducted to determine how soil bulk density and plant cover change over time in response to deferment following a high-density, high-intensity, short-term grazing/trampling event. Green Sprangletop (Leptocloa dubia Kunth.) and Kleingrass (Panicum coloratum L.) were broadcasted at 4.5 kg ha⁻¹ pure live seed (PLS) on former cropland that had a partial stand of WW-Spar Bluestem (Bothriochloa ischaemum L.). A high-density, high-intensity trampling event was achieved with twenty-four 408-kg Bos taurus heifers occupying four 0.10-ha plots (97 920 kg live weight ha⁻¹) for 10 h, with four adjacent 0.10-ha control plots left untrampled. Canopy and basal cover were determined by plant functional group using the Daubenmire method after rainfall events of > 0.254 cm, and a 5.08 × 7.62 cm core was collected to determine soil bulk density. Strips of supplemental plant material were applied in March to test the effects of 100% soil cover on seedling recruitment. Trampled treatments had 30% less vegetative cover (P < 0.01) and average soil bulk densities that were 0.20 g cm⁻³ higher (P < 0.01) than untrampled plots post trampling. Bulk density decreased with deferral until there were no significant differences between treatments (240 d). However, WW-Spar basal cover increased in both treatments, with no differences between treatments. Trampling did not affect seedling recruitment, but supplemental cover increased seedling density on three of five subsequent sampling dates (P < 0.05). Canopy cover of warm season perennial grasses in trampled treatments surpassed that of the untrampled treatments during the early growing season of 2016 (P < 0.01) but were no different after mid-June. Hydrologic function can be maintained with high stock densities by providing adequate deferment to reestablish sufficient cover and allow natural processes to restore porosity.     

Aspen Recovery Since Wolf Reintroduction on the Northern Yellowstone Winter Range

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) recruitment and overstory stem densities were sampled in 315 clones in 1991 and 2006 on 560 km² of the Northern Yellowstone Winter Range (NYWR). A primary objective was to observe if aspen status had improved from 1991 to 2006: evidence of a wolf (Canis lupus) caused trophic cascade. Recruitment stems (height > 2 m and diameter at breast height < 5 cm) represent recent growth of aspen sprouts above elk (Cervus elaphus) browsing height, whereas overstory stems (all stems > 2 m) represent the cohort of stems, which will insure the sustainability of the clone. Overstory stem densities declined by 12% (P = 0.04) on the landscape scale when compared with paired t-tests. Overstory stems declined in 58% of individual clones and in 63% of the 24 drainages of the study area. The second objective was to determine which factors influenced changes in aspen density. Winter ungulate browsing (P = 0.0001), conifer establishment (P = 0.0001), and cattle (Bos spp.) grazing (P = 0.016) contributed to the decline in overstory stem densities when analyzed using a mixed effects model of log transformed medians. Eighty percent of the clones were classified as having medium to high browsing levels in 1991, whereas 65% of the clones received a similar rating in 2006, possibly due to the reduced NYWR elk population. Aspen recruitment has increased in some 2–10 km² areas, but not consistently. Our study found that a trophic cascade of wolves, elk, and aspen, resulting in a landscape-level recovery of aspen, is not occurring at this time.     

Effect of Phosphate Fertilization on Flooding Pampa Grasslands (Argentina)

We postulate that phosphorus (P) fertilization may increase above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP) of rotationally grazed rangelands without reducing the legume component, as does N fertilization. In doing so, we evaluated the effect of phosphate fertilization on the production and relative contribution of legumes and grasses of native and old tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb) grasslands; we recorded annual production, seasonal productivity, and biomass contribution of each component. The experiment was conducted in a commercial farm located in the Flooding Pampa and managed under rotational grazing. Treatments consisted of two fertilization programs (66 (P₆₆) and 29 (P₂₉) kg P · ha^-1 supplied as rock phosphate and/or monoammonium phosphate from 1997 to 1999) and a nonfertilized control. A paddock dominated by native grassland and another dominated by old tall fescue grassland were selected. Nine 5-ha plots were established in each paddock, and treatments were randomly assigned. During the experimental period, from October 1998 to October 1999, total above-ground biomass was harvested from each plot before and after each grazing period and separated into components: tall fescue, other C₃ perennial grasses, legumes, C₃ annual grasses, C₄ grasses, forbs, and standing dead material. ANPP of each component was estimated during the warm (October 1998–February 1999) and the cool (March 1999–September 1999) season. In native grassland, phosphate fertilization increased ANPP of C₃ annual grasses and legumes during both the warm and the cool seasons; therefore annual ANPP of the grassland under P₆₆ was 40% higher than under P₂₉ and doubled ANPP of nonfertilized plots. Phosphate fertilization didn't increase total annual ANPP of old tall fescue grassland, but it did increase ANPP of legumes during both seasons.     

Integrated Ecological and Economic Analysis of Ranch Management Systems: An Example From South Central Florida

Developing sustainable ranch management systems requires integrated research that examines interrelations among ecological and economic factors. In south central Florida, where phosphorus (P) loading is an overriding environmental concern, we established an interdisciplinary experiment to address the effects of cattle stocking density and pasture type on P loading and other ecological and economic factors in subtropical Florida ranchlands through a partnership including ecologists, agricultural faculty, agency personnel, and producers. Here we present an overview of all project components detailed in 3 accompanying papers in this issue of Rangeland Ecology & Management. We describe the experimental design, which included 2 replicates of 4 different cattle stocking density treatments (control, low, middle, and high [0, 15, 20, and 35 cow–calf pairs per pasture]) maintained on 8 improved summer pastures (∼ 20 ha each), and 8 seminative winter pastures (∼ 32 ha each) from 1998 to 2003. Stocking densities did not significantly affect P loads and concentrations in surface runoff, soil chemistry, or soil nematode communities, but did affect cattle production and economic performance. Cattle production was greater at the high than at the middle or low stocking density; economic performance declined significantly with decreasing stocking density (break-even was $1.89·kg^-1 for high and $2.66·kg^-1 for low density). Pasture type significantly affected environmental factors; average P runoff from improved summer pastures (1.71 kg P·ha^-1·y^-1) was much greater than from seminative winter pastures (0.25 kg P·ha^-1·y^-1), most likely because of past P fertilizer use in improved pastures. We integrate results from all the papers within the context of a conceptual model and a P budget, and emphasize that management practices targeted at specific environmental factors on beef cattle ranches, such as nutrient loading, must include consideration of economic impacts and broader ecosystem implications.     

Estimating Aboveground Net Primary Production in Grasslands: A Comparison of Nondestructive Methods

Aboveground net primary production (ANPP) is an important ecosystem property that is affected by environmental variability. ANPP in grasslands is typically measured by clipping peak live plant material. However, this method is time intensive (and therefore expensive), making it difficult to capture spatial and temporal variability. Additionally, it is impractical to use a destructive method to estimate ANPP in long-term, permanent plots. Thus, many double-sampling techniques have been developed to reduce costs and increase sample size. The objective of our study was to assess the accuracy and precision of nondestructive techniques to estimate ANPP as supplements to the traditional method of peak biomass harvest at two grassland sites. We harvested biomass and compared estimates from the same plots to 1) canopy interception using a point frame, 2) green cover estimates derived from a digital camera, and 3) reflectance measurements using a handheld radiometer. We calculated the optimum allocation of sampling effort to direct and indirect methods to minimize sampling cost yet achieve a desired precision. We found that the point frame technique explained the highest proportion of the variability in biomass at both sites (R² = 0.91, 0.90). However, our cost-optimization analysis revealed that the radiometer technique, although less accurate (R² = 0.38, 0.51), could achieve a desired precision for lower labor costs than the point frame. The radiometer and point frame methods will be a useful tool for grassland ecologists and rangeland managers who desire fast, nondestructive estimates of ANPP.     

土壤养分分布对植物群落数量特征的影响

选择植被分布较均匀的猪毛蒿(Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kitag.)群落作为样地划分小区,在空间呈均匀和异质2种分布方式将(NH₄)₂HPO₄肥料施入小区中,以分析土壤养分的分布方式对群落数量特征的影响。结果表明:同一施肥强度下,肥料在土壤中呈斑块状异质分布比均匀分布更能促进植被的高度和生物量的增加。高施肥强度下,肥料呈异质分布时植被平均高度为31.94 cm,呈均匀分布时为27.41 cm;施肥区植株生物量显著高于CK(P<0.05),而均匀施肥区植株生物量与CK间未达显著水平,说明一定范围内,土壤养分的异质性更能提高群落地上部生产力。异质施肥降低了植株的平均密度,为121株/m²;而均匀施肥提高了植株的平均密度,为291株/m²。异质施肥区植物群落Shannon-wiener(H)指数为0.752 2±0.40,显著高于均匀施肥区和CK(分别为0.400 2±0.31,0.394 7±0.24);Simpson(λ)优势度指数为0.484 7±0.20,显著低于均匀施肥区和CK(分别为0.818 2±0.15,0.822 8±0.11)。并且,同一施肥强度下,土壤养分呈异质分布,可以提高样地植物群落中的物种多样性和均匀度,降低群落的优势度。     

Hydrologic Response to Mechanical Shredding in a Juniper Woodland

We investigated soil compaction and hydrologic responses from mechanically shredding Utah juniper (Juniperus ostesperma [Torr.] Little) to control fuels in a sagebrush/bunchgrass plant community (Artemisia nova A. Nelson, Artemisia tridentata Nutt. subsp. wyomingensis Beetle & Young/Pseudoroegneria spicata [Pursh] A. Löve, Poa secunda J. Presl) on a gravelly loam soil with a 15% slope in the Onaqui Mountains of Utah. Rain simulations were applied on 0.5-m² runoff plots at 64 mm · h^?1 (dry run: soil initially dry) and 102 mm · h^?1 (wet run: soil initially wet). Runoff and sediment were collected from runoff plots placed in five blocks, each containing four microsites (juniper mound, shrub mound, vegetation-free or bare interspace, and grass interspace) with undisturbed or tracked treatments for each microsite type and a residue-covered treatment for grass and bare interspace microsites. Soil penetration resistance was measured at the hill slope scale, and canopy and ground cover were measured at the hill slope and runoff plot scale. Although shredding trees at a density of 453 trees · ha^?1 reduced perennial foliar cover by 20.5%, shredded tree residue covered 40% of the ground surface and reduced non–foliar-covered bare ground and rock by 17%. Tire tracks from the shredding operation covered 15% of the hill slope and increased penetration resistance. For the wet run, infiltration rates of grass interspaces were significantly decreased (39.8 vs. 66.1 mm · h^?1) by tire tracks, but infiltration rates on juniper mounds and bare interspaces were unchanged. Bare interspace plots covered with residue had significantly higher infiltration rates (81.9 vs. 26.7 mm · h^?1) and lower sediment yields (38.6 vs. 313 g · m^?2) than those without residue. Because hydrologic responses to treatments are site- and scale-dependent, determination of shredding effects on other sites and at hill slope or larger scales will best guide management actions.     

Influence of 90 Years of Protection From Grazing on Plant and Soil Processes in the Subalpine of the Wasatch Plateau,USA

Human communities in the Intermountain West depend heavily on subalpine rangelands because of their importance in providing water for irrigation and forage for wildlife and livestock. In addition, many constituencies are looking to managed ecosystems to sequester carbon in plant biomass and soil C to reduce the impact of anthropogenic CO₂ on climate. This work builds on a 90-year-old grazing experiment in mountain meadows on the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of 90 years of protection from grazing on processes controlling the input, output, and storage of C in subalpine rangelands. Long-term grazing significantly reduced maximum biomass in all years compared with plots within grazing exclosures. For grazed plots, interannual variability in aboveground biomass was correlated with July precipitation and temperature (R² = 0.51), while there was a weak correlation between July precipitation and biomass in ungrazed plots (R² = 0.24). Livestock grazing had no statistically significant impacts on total soil C or particulate organic matter (POM), although grazing did increase active soil C and decrease soil moisture. Grazing significantly increased the proportion of total soil C pools that were potentially mineralizable in the laboratory, with soils from grazed plots evolving 4.6% of total soil C in 1 year while ungrazed plots lost 3.3% of total soil C. Volumetric soil moisture was consistently higher in ungrazed plots than grazed plots. The changes in soil C chemistry may have implications for how these ecosystems will respond to forecast climate change. Because grazing has resulted in an accumulation of easily decomposable organic material, if temperatures warm and summer precipitation increases as is anticipated, these soils may become net sources of CO₂ to the atmosphere creating a positive feedback between climate change and atmospheric CO₂.     

Effect of Probiotic Culture Candidates on Salmonella Prevalence in Commercial Turkey Houses

The ability of 2 probiotic cultures (P1 and P2) to reduce environmental Salmonella in commercial turkey flocks 2 wk prior to processing with or without the use of a commercial organic acid (OA) was evaluated. Salmonella-positive flocks were identified 3 to 4 wk before processing by using standard assembled drag swabs. Two weeks after treatment (prior to live haul), drag swabs were used again for Salmonella recovery. In the first trial, 6 Salmonella-positive houses were selected to evaluate 4 treatments: P1 (1.0 × 10⁸ cfu/mL), OA + P1 (1.0 × 10⁸ cfu/mL), OA + P1 (1.0 × 10⁶ cfu/mL), and OA + P2 (1.0 × 10⁶ cfu/mL). Two weeks after treatment, reductions (P <0.05) of Salmonella recovery (90, 100, 100, and 86%, respectively) were observed in all treatments. In the second trial, 22 Salmonella-positive houses were selected to evaluate 6 treatments: control, OA, P1, P2, OA + P1, and OA + P2. Two weeks after treatment, the recovery of Salmonella was significantly reduced (P <0.05) in houses in which P1 and P2 cultures were administered in combination with the OA product. Our results suggest that the administration of selected probiotic candidate bacteria in combination with OA may reduce environmental Salmonella in turkey houses prior to live haul, and that this practice could help to reduce the risk of Salmonella cross-contamination in the processing plant.     

Crested Wheatgrass Control and Native Plant Establishment in Utah

Effective control methods need to be developed to reduce crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum [L.] Gaertner) monocultures and promote the establishment of native species. This research was designed to determine effective ways to reduce crested wheatgrass and establish native species while minimizing weed invasion. We mechanically (single- or double-pass disking) and chemically (1.1 L · ha^?1 or 3.2 L · ha^?1 glyphosate–Roundup Original Max) treated two crested wheatgrass sites in northern Utah followed by seeding native species in 2005 and 2006. The study was conducted at each site as a randomized block split plot design with five blocks. Following wheatgrass-reduction treatments, plots were divided into 0.2-ha subplots that were either unseeded or seeded with native plant species using a Truax Rough Rider rangeland drill. Double-pass disking in 2005 best initially controlled wheatgrass and decreased cover from 14% to 6% at Lookout Pass and from 14% to 4% at Skull Valley in 2006. However, crested wheatgrass recovered to similar cover percentages as untreated plots 2–3 yr after wheatgrass-reduction treatments. At the Skull Valley site, cheatgrass cover decreased by 14% on herbicide-treated plots compared to an increase of 33% on mechanical-treated plots. Cheatgrass cover was also similar on undisturbed and treated plots 2 yr and 3 yr after wheatgrass-reduction treatments, indicating that wheatgrass recovery minimized any increases in weed dominance as a result of disturbance. Native grasses had high emergence after seeding, but lack of survival was associated with short periods of soil moisture availability in spring 2007. Effective wheatgrass control may require secondary treatments to reduce the seed bank and open stands to dominance by seeded native species. Manipulation of crested wheatgrass stands to restore native species carries the risk of weed invasion if secondary treatments effectively control the wheatgrass and native species have limited survival due to drought.     

Nondestructive Age Estimation of Mountain Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana) Using Morphological Characteristics

Current methods for determining plant age of shrub species require destructive sampling and annual growth ring analysis on the primary stem. Although individual plant ages can frequently be determined in this manner, the method is time consuming and of limited value for plants that have lost stem wood from stem splitting and rot. Nondestructive methods for estimating big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) plant age would be useful in assessing stand age structure and population dynamics at variable spatial scales. The purpose of this study was to test a suite of traits for potential use in estimating mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana [Rydb.] Beetle) age. We evaluated traits including plant height, crown area, subcanopy litter depth, percent crown mortality, bark furrow depth, bark fiber length, circumference and diameter of plant basal stem, and circumference of secondary and tertiary branches. We measured and harvested basal cross-sections from 163 plants of varying sizes from five locations in central and south-central Utah. Plant age was determined from annual growth rings. Linear regression analyses revealed that stem diameter (r² = 0.507 P < 0.0001) was the most highly correlated variable with plant age across all sites, followed by stem circumference (r² = 0.474 P < 0.0001), secondary branch circumference (r² = 0.360, P < 0.0001), tertiary branch circumference (r² = 0.405, P < 0.0001), and bark fiber length (r² = 0.373, P < 0.0001). Results support previous findings that stem girth has value for estimating mountain big sagebrush plant age and that this trait is a better indicator of age than any other tested traits. Although the relationship between stem diameter and plant age was significant, substantial stem size variability associated with plants of the same approximate age indicates that the method is most appropriate when precise age estimates are not required. This technique was developed specifically for mountain big sagebrush, but it is expected that it can be adapted for other sagebrush taxa.     

Reproductive Effort and Seed Establishment in Grazed Tussock Grass Populations of Patagonia

The importance of sexual reproduction in tussock grasses that regenerate through vegetative growth is unclear. Festuca gracillima Hook. f. was studied as a model because it is a perennial tussock-forming grass that produces abundant seed but rarely regenerates through seedlings. The Study area was the Magellanic Steppe, Patagonia, Argentina (182 mm rainfall), managed with sheep-grazing regimes of 0.65 (high), 0.21 (low), and 0 (exclosure) ewe equivalents · ha^?1 · yr^?1. Tussock size and spikelet production of 358 individuals were recorded over 5 yr. Yearly models of reproductive effort in relation to plant size were tested using a maximum likelihood procedure. Seed was collected and soil cores were tested for germination and viability. Survival and growth of cohorts of seedlings sown in nylon bags were recorded. Eighteen experimental plots were cleared, and seed establishment under protected and grazed conditions was registered. Reproductive effort varied with years and plant size, with a mean of 2.41%. Florets were produced at mean density of 544 ± 217 · m^?2. Predispersal losses reduced viable seed production to 187 ± 48 seeds · m^?2. Seed weighed 2–2.5 mg, with 65–95% germination. Postdispersal losses reduced the seed bank in spring to 33 ± 1.3 seeds · m^?2. Seedling survival curves were negatively exponential, with 95% mortality in the first year. Up to 5% of resources were used for sexual reproduction in favorable years and a recruitment of 1–3 new seedlings · m^?2 · yr^?1 was expected. These new plants were not observed in undisturbed plots, but established naturally in cleared plots and reached a density of 1 plant · m^?2 after 10 yr, together with 44 plants · m^?2 of other species. Competition might block the final establishment in these grasslands. Grazing does not appear to interfere in any stage of seed reproduction. Seed production may not maintain population numbers but could enhance genetic variation in these clonal plant populations and enable dispersal and recolonization of disturbed areas.     

The effect of Holistic Planned Grazing™ on African rangelands: a case study from Zimbabwe

Holistic Planned Grazing? (HPG) is purported to have positive long-term effects on rangelands, enhancing ecosystem services. Given comparable environmental templates, but different management regimes, vegetation monitoring and landscape function analysis showed the Africa Center for Holistic Management (ACHM) at Dimbangombe had a significantly higher rangeland condition (composition, cover, standing crop and soil health) than adjacent Sizinda (SCR) and Monde (MCR) communal rangelands. Overall grazer density on ACHM is 42% higher than that of SCR (no data for MCR). Finer-scale satellite collar data for ACHM yielded a calculated stocking rate of 0,55 LSU ha^-1 y^-1 or 24 590 kg km^-2, which constitutes high-density grazing. An energy flow estimate shows that the grazing resource would, on average, not be limiting for livestock on ACHM but limiting on SCR. HPG may include an element where kraals are inserted into degraded rangelands for a short period. Overall, ACHM shows stable perennial composition with smaller tufts significantly closer together. A similar result was visible in SCR where maize yields were visibly higher on kraaled areas than on adjacent untreated fields. HPG yields positive long-term effects on ecosystem services (soils and vegetation) and points to the HPG approach enhancing the sustainability of livestock and wildlife in this environment.