Effect of Simulated Browsing on Aspen Regeneration: Implications for Restoration

Aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) is a disturbance-dependent, fire-resilient, shade-intolerant, clonal species that is in decline throughout western North America. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of intensity and season of browsing on annual height growth of aspen suckers. The goal was to aid development of livestock grazing strategies to restore stands in decline due to excessive livestock browsing. We implemented 33 combinations of intensity and season of browse on aspen suckers in three aspen stands on Eagle Lake Range District, Lassen National Forest, California, USA, during 2003 and 2004. Greatest growth was on suckers with no terminal leader browse and ≤ 25% of biomass removed from branches. Lowest growth occurred when 90% of terminal leader length and 50% of branch biomass was removed. Growth was most negatively affected by browse on terminal leader. Growth was lowest for suckers browsed midseason only and suckers browsed both early and midseason. Occurrence of conifer in the stand overstory significantly reduced sucker growth. Managers should minimize browse on terminal leaders, midseason browse over consecutive years, and repeated browse during a growing season.     

Cattle Selection for Aspen and Meadow Vegetation: Implications for Restoration

There is concern over the decline of aspen and the lack of successful regeneration due to excessive browsing of aspen suckers by cattle and other wild and domestic ungulates. We conducted a 2-yr study on Lassen National Forest, California, to aid development of cattle grazing strategies to enhance aspen regeneration. We evaluated seasonal biomass, nutritional quality, and utilization by cattle of aspen suckers, aspen herbaceous understory vegetation, and meadow herbaceous vegetation within six aspen–meadow complexes. Aspen suckers had greater nutritional quality compared to aspen understory and meadow vegetation regardless of season or year. Nutritional quality declined with season in all three vegetation types. Early-growing season foraging by cattle focused on meadow and aspen understory vegetation. Mid-growing season decreases in meadow and aspen understory nutritional quality coincided with a marked increase in utilization of aspen suckers. By late-growing season, utilization on aspen suckers was significantly greater than aspen understory or meadow vegetation. Managers can use early-growing season grazing to reduce aspen consumption by cattle, set stocking rates so that adequate herbaceous vegetation is available throughout the growing season, provide nutritional supplements to reduce demand for nutritious aspen suckers, construct protective fencing, and implement grazing systems that insure years with mid- and late-growing season rest from heavy browsing.     

Aspen Recovery Since Wolf Reintroduction on the Northern Yellowstone Winter Range

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) recruitment and overstory stem densities were sampled in 315 clones in 1991 and 2006 on 560 km² of the Northern Yellowstone Winter Range (NYWR). A primary objective was to observe if aspen status had improved from 1991 to 2006: evidence of a wolf (Canis lupus) caused trophic cascade. Recruitment stems (height > 2 m and diameter at breast height < 5 cm) represent recent growth of aspen sprouts above elk (Cervus elaphus) browsing height, whereas overstory stems (all stems > 2 m) represent the cohort of stems, which will insure the sustainability of the clone. Overstory stem densities declined by 12% (P = 0.04) on the landscape scale when compared with paired t-tests. Overstory stems declined in 58% of individual clones and in 63% of the 24 drainages of the study area. The second objective was to determine which factors influenced changes in aspen density. Winter ungulate browsing (P = 0.0001), conifer establishment (P = 0.0001), and cattle (Bos spp.) grazing (P = 0.016) contributed to the decline in overstory stem densities when analyzed using a mixed effects model of log transformed medians. Eighty percent of the clones were classified as having medium to high browsing levels in 1991, whereas 65% of the clones received a similar rating in 2006, possibly due to the reduced NYWR elk population. Aspen recruitment has increased in some 2–10 km² areas, but not consistently. Our study found that a trophic cascade of wolves, elk, and aspen, resulting in a landscape-level recovery of aspen, is not occurring at this time.     

刈割对暖性草丛草地碳交换的影响——以渝北岐山草地为例

试验以南方改良后的暖性草丛草地为研究对象,探讨刈割对南方草地生态系统碳交换的影响。结果表明:(1)在生长季(4~9月),对照和刈割草地均处于CO2吸收阶段,但刈割草地对CO2的吸收量低于对照草地(P0.01);在非生长季(10月~次年3月),对照和刈割草地均处于碳排放阶段,但刈割草地CO2排放量显著低于对照组(P0.01),在全年尺度上,刈割草地净生态系统碳交换量(NEE)与对照草地无显著差异,且均为碳汇草地;(2)刈割草地生态系统呼吸(ER)和土壤呼吸(RS)在个别月份与对照相比有所降低,但在全年尺度上无影响;(3)生长季时,刈割草地生态系统总初级生产力(GEP)高于对照草地(P0.05),但在非生长季和全年水平下无显著差异(P0.05)。在生长季和非生长季草地生态系统碳交换量在刈割下有所变化,但在全年水平上效果并不显著。说明草地对外界干扰有一定的自我调适功能,适度刈割并不会影响草地生态系统碳循环。     

一年生野生大豆植株基部休眠芽萌动与刈割时间的关系

为探究一年生野生大豆(Glycine soja Sieb.et Zucc.)植株基部腋芽的萌动特性,分别在主茎第2、3、4、5、6、7和第8复叶期(20007年5月至8月底)于第1复叶节和第2复叶节之间切除主茎,在剪切后第0、2、4、8、12 d观测各处理主茎基部新生芽(茎)数以及残茬中可溶性碳水化合物含量。结果表明:一年生野生大豆子叶节上对生着2个腋芽,其只有在主茎第4复叶展开前打顶刺激下才能萌动生长,否则枯死;单叶节上也存在2个对生的腋芽,无论主茎剪除与否,均可萌动生长成分枝;第1复叶节上存在多个腋芽,在节上存在分枝的情况下,剪除主茎仍能刺激节上休眠腋芽的萌动。主茎剪除后,残茬中可溶性糖含量短期内显著下降(P<0.05);不同生长期刈除主茎,其残茬可溶性糖含量的变化趋势无显著差异,且与残茬上休眠芽的萌动和生长无明显的相关关系。因此推测,一年生野生大豆植株基部休眠芽在较短生长时期内便失去萌动能力,早期刈割和提高留茬高度是确保刈割后再生的重要措施。     

刈割强度对羊草可溶性碳水化合物含量及根茎构件的影响

通过小区控制刈割试验,研究了不同刈割强度对羊草可溶性碳水化合物含量及根茎的影响,结果表明：羊草叶片可溶性碳水化合物含量随季节呈规律性“V”字型变化,不同处理出现谷值时间不同;羊草茎基部和根茎可溶性碳水化合物含量变化趋势相同,测定期内逐渐增加,在生长季末达到最大值;刈割强度对羊草叶片、茎基部和根茎可溶性碳水化合物含量均有显著性影响（P〈0.05）;根茎长度、根茎节数、根茎芽数及根茎生物量随刈割强度的增加而降低。     

Ungulate Herbivory Is Correlated with High Aspen Suckering Density but Reductions in Aspen Growth Rates and Recruitment

Aspen is a foundation species that provides vital habitat for hundreds of plant and animal species. However, changing ungulate herbivory regimes may be altering recruitment success and resilience of aspen forests. The objective of this observational study was to quantify the impacts of ungulate herbivory on aspen recruitment potential. We sampled 36 aspen dominant stands on the Fishlake National Forest in Utah for browse of apical meristems, suckering density (< 180 cm in height), and recruitment density (≥ 180 cm). Our analysis indicated that for each 10% of apical meristems browsed, annual vertical and radial growth rates and recruitment density were reduced by 1.2 cm, 0.02 mm, and 17 ha^? 1, respectively. In contrast, aspen suckering density increased by 1 230 suckers ha^? 1, with each 10% browse of apical meristems. This suggests that ungulates contribute to aspen suckers persisting in the understory for longer periods and may alter recruitment success of aspen stands. Aspen that were under high ungulate browse pressure were associated with lower growth rates and persisted for twice as long in the understory. For example, a 5-yr-old sucker was predicted to be 115 cm without browse of apical meristems and 60 cm with 100% browse of apical meristems. Further, aspens of the same height with 100% browse of apical meristems were nearly 4 yr older on average than aspens with no evidence of browse of apical meristems. Approximately 34% of aspen suckers had persisted in the understory < 100 cm for ≥ 6 yr, and 7% of suckers had persisted in the understory for ≥ 10 yr. Our results suggest that high rates of meristem removal are correlated with increased aspen suckering yet reduced aspen growth and recruitment.     

Egg production response of laying chickens to feather clipping,cool water and aspirin during hot weather conditions

An 8-week trial was conducted between March and May (hot-dry season) to determine effects of water temperature, feather clipping and aspirin on egg production of chickens. The treatments tested were hens given ordinary drinking water (control), cool water (100 g ice block per L) and aspirin (0.3 mg per L of ordinary water) and hens whose feathers were clipped (about two thirds of body feathers clipped). At 32 weeks of age, 120 Lohmann brown layer chickens of similar live weights were randomly divided into 12 groups of ten hens each and assigned to the treatments in triplicate using a completely randomized design. Feed and water were given ad libitum. Data included feed intake, water consumption, hen-day egg production and egg weight. Ambient house temperature, hen’s cloacal temperature and water temperature were monitored daily during the experimental period. Mean daily ambient temperature increased from 28.4 to 35.0 °C during the study period with consequent increase in cloacal temperatures (40.31 to 41.18 °C) of hens, ordinary drinking water and cool water. None of the treatments had any significant (P?>?0.05) effects on feed intake and water consumption of the birds. Hens given cool water produced more (P?P?P?>?0.05). It is concluded that the provision of cool water in a hot-dry climate had a beneficial effect on egg laying performance of chickens.     

Grass defoliation affecting survival and growth of seedlings of Acacia karroo,an encroaching species in southwestern Zimbabwe

Abstract

Two experiments were conducted, one in the field and the other in the greenhouse, to investigate the effects of the intensity and frequency of grass defoliation on the survival and growth of Acacia karroo seedlings. In the greenhouse, seedlings growing with heavily clipped grasses had higher biomass production than those competing with moderately clipped grasses. Root/shoot ratios were higher in treatments with undipped grasses. There was a negative relationship between grass root production and A. karroo biomass production. The field experiment was carried out in two paddocks, one previously heavily‐grazed and the other lightly‐grazed. Grazing in both paddocks was simulated by artificial defoliation. Generally more A. karroo seedlings emerged under lightly defoliated treatments. Clipping frequency had a strong effect (P=0.066) on the survival of emerged seedlings during the wet season. There were no differences in survival rate at the end of the dry season. Though grass defoliation was shown to enhance seedling growth under controlled conditions, no evidence was found to suggest that seedling establishment during the first year is influenced by the intensity of grass defoliation.     

Behaviour of goats, sheep and cattle on natural pasture in the sub-humid zone of West Africa

The behaviour of sheep, goats and cattle on a shrub and tree savannah in the sub-humid zone of West Africa was studied during the dry (February to May), rainy (June to September) and cool season (October to January). Two mature females per animal species were followed by two observers during 3 days per month and behaviour activities were recorded every 15 min of the daily grazing time. When browsing, the plant name, plant part and plant height reached during prehension were recorded. The distance travelled and the grazing circuits were recorded with a step counter and a Geographic Position System device. The knowledge of farmers concerning appreciated browse species relative to the browse species consumed by animals in the area was also investigated.

During the dry season sheep, goats and cattle spent around 25% of their time browsing and 20%, 16% and 31%, respectively, of their time grazing. During the cool season, goats (17%) browsed more than sheep (7%) and cattle (5%) (P < 0.05). During the rainy season, sheep browsed 20% of the time while cattle spent only 7% of their time browsing, while goats were tied, with no opportunity for browsing. Browsing leaves was the most important part of the browsing activity. During the cool season, browsing height was the same (1.0 m) for cattle and goats, but lower for sheep (0.6 m) (P < 0.05). In the dry and cool season, sheep and goats walked shorter distances than cattle.

The plant species with the highest frequency of consumption were Acacia dudgeoni Craib, Ficus gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) A. Rich, Dioscorea togoensis Knuth, Cordia myxa L., and Manguifera indica L. for sheep and goats and Afzelia africana Sm., Kaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss, Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. and Dicrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight and Arn. for cattle. Species with a high frequency of citation by farmers were A. africana (92%), K. senegalensis (88%), P. erinaceus (86%), Faidherbia albida A. Chevalier (80%), A. dudgeoni (70%) and F. gnaphalocarpa (69%).

In conclusion, browse species make an important contribution to the diet of ruminant animals in the sub-humid zone and farmers are familiar with the species consumed by ruminant animals.     

光强和刈割处理对柠条幼苗补偿生长的影响

在3个光强,100%自然全光照(natural sunlight,NS)、37%NS和16%NS的遮阴条件下,研究了5个刈割强度处理(留茬高度为30、20、10、3cm和不刈割)对柠条(Caragana korshinskii)幼苗补偿生长的影响。结果表明,1)强光照和刈割均促进幼苗刈割后的补偿生长,刈割处理后幼苗的萌条数和萌条基径都在强光下最大,但随着刈割强度的增大呈减小趋势。2)幼苗株高、基径、主根长和侧根数在所有刈割处理均表现为100%NS37%NS16%NS;刈割处理幼苗的株高和基径均小于不刈割对照,且随刈割强度的增大而减小;尽管轻度刈割促进幼苗主根生长和侧根数增加,但二者都随刈割强度的增大而受到抑制。3)强光照有利于幼苗刈割后的生物量积累,但幼苗总生物量在不同光照条件下都随刈割程度的增大逐渐减小,即表现为欠补偿生长;幼苗生物量补偿指数随着光照强度的减弱而增大,在16%NS下不同强度刈割处理间变化不大,表明幼苗刈割后的生物量积累在强光下主要依赖于光合作用新合成的光合产物,而在弱光下主要依赖于根系和残留树桩贮藏的营养物质。研究表明,柠条幼苗刈割后的补偿生长能力随着刈割强度的增大而减小,且表现为欠补偿;强光照对柠条幼苗刈割后的补偿生长具有促进作用。本研究可为柠条的幼苗培育、饲草生产和草地生态系统管理提供参考。     

基于构件特征的内蒙古典型草原植物羊草个体地上生物量估算

生物量是评价草原生态系统生产力的重要指标,草原主要植物个体地上生物量估算模型的建立,可为采用非刈割方法获取较准确的草原地面数据资料提供新方法。通过分析内蒙古典型草原植物羊草的主要构件特征(叶片数、叶长宽积、茎粗、茎高和株高)与其个体地上生物量之间的关系,比较并筛选出能较好预测羊草个体生物量变化的构件指标,采用Minitab软件的回归分析方法,分别利用6月、7月和8月采集的90株和总体270株羊草植物样本,建立羊草不同生长阶段(生长初期、生长旺盛期和生长末期)以及总体样本的个体地上生物量估算方程,并对实测值与模拟值进行t检验分析。结果表明,叶长宽积和株高相对于其他构件信息能够更好地描述羊草个体地上生物量,方程Y=-0.193+0.009X₂+0.011X₅(X₂为叶长宽积,X₅为株高,P<0.01,R²=0.854)为最优羊草个体生物量估算模型。     

Mefluidide treatment of tall fescue pastures: forage quality

Spring application of a plant growth regulator, mefluidide, to tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) pastures grazed from May to September reduced (P less than .05) available DM and digestible OM per hectare by 51 and 41%, respectively, compared to untreated pastures. However, seasonal averages for N, Ca and P content and in vitro OM disappearance (OMD) were greater (P less than .05) and NDF was lower (P less than .05) in tall fescue from mefluidide-treated pastures than in untreated pastures. Compared to hand-clipped samples, esophageal extrusa of tall fescue was 63% higher (P less than .05) in N (2.7 vs 1.7%) and 26% lower (P less than .05) in NDF (52.6 vs 69.9%) than hand-clipped tall fescue samples, regardless of treatment. Extrusa and hand-clipped herbage samples were similar (P greater than .10) in OMD during May and September, but OMD of extrusa was greater (P less than .05) during June, July and August compared to clipped samples. As a consequence of preventing stem elongation and seedhead formation earlier in the growing season, mefluidide treatment of tall fescue maintained forage quality at a higher level during midsummer.     

Fire,Defoliation, and Competing Species Alter Aristida purpurea Biomass,Tiller, and Axillary Bud Production

Aristida purpurea (purple threeawn) is a competitive native perennial grass with monoculturistic tendencies and poor palatability. We examined effects of fire, defoliation, and interspecific/intraspecific planting for 1) threeawn responses in the presence of threeawn, Bouteloua gracilis, or Pascopyrum smithii, and 2) B. gracilis and P. smithii response with threeawn. Biomass, aboveground production, tillers, and axillary buds were analyzed following two fire and four clipping treatments applied to three species–pair combinations in a completely randomized factorial design with nine replications. Fire killed 36% of threeawn. Fire reduced surviving threeawn biomass 61% and reduced production 27%. Threeawn production was greatest when neither plant was clipped and least when competing species were moderately clipped, or when both plants were severely clipped. Tiller counts of burned threeawn were similar among clipping treatments, and less than non-clipped or moderately clipped plants not burned. Fire decreased threeawn axillary buds on average by 25%. Moderately clipped plants had greater production than those from other clipping treatments across species. Average threeawn percentage of pot biomass was greater with B. gracilis (46 ± 3% SE) than P. smithii (38 ± 3% SE). Fire reduced threeawn from 60 ± 3% to 23 ± 3% of pot biomass, indicating good potential for rapid reductions in threeawn dominance and restoration of plant diversity with fire.     

Summer and Winter Defoliation Impacts on Mixed-Grass Rangeland

Combined growing- and dormant-season pasture use has potential to increase herbage harvest without causing the undesirable shift in species composition that occurs with excessive utilization. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of summer clipping on winter pastures and winter clipping on summer pastures regarding standing crop, plant community composition, and forage quality. The study was conducted from 2003–2006 at the Antelope and Cottonwood Research Stations located in the mixed-grass prairie of western South Dakota. At each location, the experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replications that included 18 clipping treatments arranged as a split-split plot. Whole plots consisted of four summer clipping dates (May–August). Subplot treatments were two clipping intensities (clipped to residual height to achieve 25% or 50% utilization). Sub-subplots consisted of two winter clipping intensities (unharvested or clipped to a residual height to achieve a total utilization of 65%). Two winter control treatments were arranged in the subplot and split into two clipping intensities of 50% and 65% utilization. Winter biomass for the May 25% clipping treatment was similar to winter biomass for winter-only clipping. No increase in forage quality resulted from summer clipping compared with winter clipping. Three consecutive yr of combined growing-season and dormant-season defoliation to 65% utilization resulted in no change in functional group composition compared with ≤ 50% utilization treatments. Clipping in June resulted in reduced midgrass biomass at both stations and increased shortgrass biomass at Cottonwood. Results suggest that producers could combine growing and dormant-season grazing to increase the harvest of herbage on mixed-grass prairie, but should change season of use periodically to avoid an undesirable shift in plant composition.     

Juniper Consumption Does Not Adversely Affect Meat Quality in Boer-Cross Goats

Goat browsing can be used as an alternative brush management option for redberry (Juniperus pinchotii Sudw.) and ashe (Juniperus asheii Buch) juniper instead of more expensive and invasive brush control methods, assuming consumption of juniper does not adversely affect the marketability of offspring. Some wildlife species reportedly retain juniper flavor when consumed. We determined if juniper consumption affected meat quality or flavoring of Boer-cross kid carcasses. Twenty recently weaned, Boer-cross wethers were randomly assigned to one of four treatments with treatments fed different amounts of juniper (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% juniper in the diet). All goats were fed juniper for 28 d at the Angelo State University (ASU) Management, Instruction, and Research Center. All goats were also fed a feedlot ration to meet maintenance requirements (2% body weight). Juniper intake varied (P < 0.05) between all treatments (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%) primarily because treatments were fed different amounts of juniper. Following a 28-d trial, goats were harvested at the ASU Food Safety and Product Development Laboratory. Carcass characteristics including live weight, hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, loineye area, body wall fat thickness, and leg circumference were similar (P > 0.05) among treatments. Sensory characteristics including tenderness, juiciness, flavor intensity, off-flavor, and overall acceptability were also similar (P > 0.05) among treatments. Landowners can utilize goats as a biological management tool without adversely affecting goat meat quality or flavoring.     

The effect feeding forage legumes as nitrogen supplement on growth performance of sheep

The effect of feeding forage legumes, Cowpea, Silverleaf desmodium and Oxley fine stem stylo, as protein supplements to natural pasture (veld) hay on intake, growth rate and nitrogen metabolism in growing lambs was evaluated. Thirty growing lambs were stratified according to body weight and randomly assigned, within a stratum, to five diets in a completely randomised design. The diets were veld hay alone (V), veld hay supplemented with either 10 g/kg of urea (VU), veld hay supplemented with 250 g/kg Cowpea (VC), 250 g/kg Silverleaf desmodium (VS) or 250 g/kg Oxley fine stem stylo (VF) forage legume hays. The V and the VU groups were used as control diets. Animals supplemented with either urea or the forage legume had higher (P < 0.01) total dry matter intake compared with the animals on V. The animals supplemented with the forage legumes had higher (P < 0.01) nitrogen intake and faecal nitrogen output than the non-supplemented group. All animals, across the treatments, lost body weight; lambs on V had higher (P < 0.01) body weight losses than those in the other treatments. The forage legume supplemented groups lost less (P < 0.01) body weight than those on the V and VU diets. Although supplementation with forage legumes enhanced feed intake and reduced weight losses it did not maintain body weights of lambs fed a basal diet of poor quality roughages.     

锡林郭勒盟不同类型植被的生长季变化

利用分辨率为1km×1km 1989-2008年长时间序列NOAA/AVHRR NDVI卫星产品数据以及锡林郭勒盟植被类型图,对时间序列影像进行Savitzky-Golay滤波后,提取了8种植被类型多年的归一化植被指数(NDVI)时序曲线,对NDVI时序曲线进行S-G滤波后,采用改进的动态阈值法分别估测各植被类型每年生长季的开始、结束时间及长度并进行线性拟合,讨论其变化情况。根据实测数据验证了温带丛生禾草典型草原遥感估测物候期的精确度。研究结果表明,各种植被类型生长季开始时间变化情况差别较大,除温带禾草、杂类草盐生草甸和温带落叶小叶疏林分别有4和1d·20a-1的轻微延迟以外,其它6种植被的生长季开始时间均有不同程度的提前趋势,不同植被类型生长季结束时间呈现出了差别较小的延迟趋势,生长季长度均延长,生长季结束时间对生长季长度的影响更大;估测的温带丛生禾草典型草原返青期与观测值变化趋势非常接近,分别提前了9和7d·20a-1,而两者的黄枯期则出现了相反的变化趋势。估测值与观测值的均方根误差(RMSE)分别是,生长季开始时间16.59d,结束时间14.40d。     

Research note: Tests for inducible thorn defences against herbivory must consider plant growth strategies

Abstract

Thorn length and density on the latest year's growth were compared at three height (feeding) levels (<1m, >1m<2 m and >2 m) on individuals of Acacia karroo and Ziziphus mucronata in an area that was browsed by goats. Thorn length and density was greatest for branches within easiest reach of goats. However, there was no increase in thorn length or density on the latest year's growth of branches of A. karroo individuals protected from browsing. Thorns on distal ends of branches are relatively small and sparse and this is partly due to differences in internode length. Herbivores limit the extent of annual growth and this prevents development of small thorns characteristic of late season growth. Thus, browsed individuals which lack late season growth may have greater spinescence. This is only a passively induced response and is not due to the active production of larger thorns subsequent to browsing.     

Intermediate Periodicities in Juniper Consumption and Sampling Strategies to Estimate the Diet of Free-Grazing Goats

We conducted this study to describe the intermediate-term periodicities in percentage juniper (Juniperus spp.) in goat diets and to develop optimal sampling schemes to estimate individual animal variation in juniper consumption. Fecal samples were collected from 12 multiparous female Angora goats on Monday and Thursday for a 24-mo period. Percentage juniper in the diet was determined using fecal near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Spectral analysis was used to determine the presence and length of cyclic variation in juniper consumption during growing and dormant season periods. Significant periodicities were found for 37% and 68% of the goats in the dormant and growing seasons, respectively. Cycle lengths varied from 9 d in the dormant season to 7 or 8 d in the growing season. The simple coefficient of determination between a two-sample moving average and the mean of all observations on individual goats was highest during a 3-mo period in the spring, which indicates that samples collected in the spring provided the best estimate of the yearlong percentage juniper in the diet. Monte Carlo simulations for 7-d cycles showed the root mean squared difference between estimated and population mean for two samples with 2 or 3 d between samples was only 1% greater than the root mean square difference for three or four samples collected every other day. The optimal sampling strategy for determining the dietary percentage of a species is to collect two samples separated by one-half of the cycle length.