BAX and BAK regulation of endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+: a control point for apoptosis

BAX and BAK are "multidomain" proapoptotic proteins that initiate mitochondrial dysfunction but also localize to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Mouse embryonic fibroblasts deficient for BAX and BAK (DKO cells) were found to have a reduced resting concentration of calcium in the ER ([Ca2+]er) that results in decreased uptake of Ca2+ by mitochondria after Ca2+ release from the ER. Expression of SERCA (sarcoplasmic-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ adenosine triphosphatase) corrected [Ca2+]er and mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in DKO cells, restoring apoptotic death in response to agents that release Ca2+ from intracellular stores (such as arachidonic acid, C2-ceramide, and oxidative stress). In contrast, targeting of BAX to mitochondria selectively restored apoptosis to "BH3-only" signals. A third set of stimuli, including many intrinsic signals, required both ER-released Ca2+ and the presence of mitochondrial BAX or BAK to fully restore apoptosis. Thus, BAX and BAK operate in both the ER and mitochondria as an essential gateway for selected apoptotic signals.     

VDAC2 inhibits BAK activation and mitochondrial apoptosis

The multidomain proapoptotic molecules BAK or BAX are required to initiate the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. How cells maintain the potentially lethal proapoptotic effector BAK in a monomeric inactive conformation at mitochondria is unknown. In viable cells, we found BAK complexed with mitochondrial outer-membrane protein VDAC2, a VDAC isoform present in low abundance that interacts specifically with the inactive conformer of BAK. Cells deficient in VDAC2, but not cells lacking the more abundant VDAC1, exhibited enhanced BAK oligomerization and were more susceptible to apoptotic death. Conversely, overexpression of VDAC2 selectively prevented BAK activation and inhibited the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Death signals activate "BH3-only" molecules such as tBID, BIM, or BAD, which displace VDAC2 from BAK, enabling homo-oligomerization of BAK and apoptosis. Thus, VDAC2, an isoform restricted to mammals, regulates the activity of BAK and provides a connection between mitochondrial physiology and the core apoptotic pathway.     

BID, BIM, and PUMA are essential for activation of the BAX- and BAK-dependent cell death program

Although the proteins BAX and BAK are required for initiation of apoptosis at the mitochondria, how BAX and BAK are activated remains unsettled. We provide in vivo evidence demonstrating an essential role of the proteins BID, BIM, and PUMA in activating BAX and BAK. Bid, Bim, and Puma triple-knockout mice showed the same developmental defects that are associated with deficiency of Bax and Bak, including persistent interdigital webs and imperforate vaginas. Genetic deletion of Bid, Bim, and Puma prevented the homo-oligomerization of BAX and BAK, and thereby cytochrome c-mediated activation of caspases in response to diverse death signals in neurons and T lymphocytes, despite the presence of other BH3-only molecules. Thus, many forms of apoptosis require direct activation of BAX and BAK at the mitochondria by a member of the BID, BIM, or PUMA family of proteins.     

Requirement of JNK for stress-induced activation of the cytochrome c-mediated death pathway

The c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) is activated when cells are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. However, the functional consequence of JNK activation in UV-irradiated cells has not been established. It is shown here that JNK is required for UV-induced apoptosis in primary murine embryonic fibroblasts. Fibroblasts with simultaneous targeted disruptions of all the functional Jnk genes were protected against UV-stimulated apoptosis. The absence of JNK caused a defect in the mitochondrial death signaling pathway, including the failure to release cytochrome c. These data indicate that mitochondria are influenced by proapoptotic signal transduction through the JNK pathway.     

家蚕细胞色素C基因的克隆及其蛋白在家蚕凋亡细胞中的释放

 【目的】细胞色素C是线粒体凋亡路径上的关键因子,通过家蚕细胞色素C基因的克隆和其蛋白在家蚕凋亡细胞中的释放研究,为家蚕细胞凋亡的研究奠定基础。【方法】利用生物信息学和分子生物学方法克隆家蚕细胞色素C基因,通过紫外线照射诱导家蚕细胞凋亡,应用流式细胞仪和Western-blotting检测家蚕凋亡细胞的线粒体膜电位变化和细胞色素C的释放。【结果】在家蚕中克隆了一个含有细胞色素C保守结构域的同源基因,该基因cDNA长570 bp,有3个外显子,开放阅读框（open reading frame,ORF）长324 bp,编码108个氨基酸,存在参与细胞凋亡时与下游凋亡蛋白酶激活因子（Apaf－1）相互作用的保守关键位点;紫外线诱导家蚕胚胎细胞BmE-SWU1凋亡后12 h,细胞线粒体跨膜电位明显下降,同时检测到了细胞色素C由线粒体向细胞质释放。【结论】在家蚕细胞凋亡中可能存在细胞色素C由线粒体释放的路径。     

Caspases 3 and 7: key mediators of mitochondrial events of apoptosis

The current model of apoptosis holds that upstream signals lead to activation of downstream effector caspases. We generated mice deficient in the two effectors, caspase 3 and caspase 7, which died immediately after birth with defects in cardiac development. Fibroblasts lacking both enzymes were highly resistant to both mitochondrial and death receptor-mediated apoptosis, displayed preservation of mitochondrial membrane potential, and had defective nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Furthermore, the early apoptotic events of Bax translocation and cytochrome c release were also delayed. We conclude that caspases 3 and 7 are critical mediators of mitochondrial events of apoptosis.     

The pathophysiology of mitochondrial cell death

In the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, caspase activation is closely linked to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Numerous pro-apoptotic signal-transducing molecules and pathological stimuli converge on mitochondria to induce MOMP. The local regulation and execution of MOMP involve proteins from the Bcl-2 family, mitochondrial lipids, proteins that regulate bioenergetic metabolite flux, and putative components of the permeability transition pore. MOMP is lethal because it results in the release of caspase-activating molecules and caspase-independent death effectors, metabolic failure in the mitochondria, or both. Drugs designed to suppress excessive MOMP may avoid pathological cell death, and the therapeutic induction of MOMP may restore apoptosis in cancer cells in which it is disabled. The general rules governing the pathophysiology of MOMP and controversial issues regarding its regulation are discussed.     

Proapoptotic BAX and BAK modulate the unfolded protein response by a direct interaction with IRE1alpha

Accumulation of misfolded protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) triggers an adaptive stress response-termed the unfolded protein response (UPR)-mediated by the ER transmembrane protein kinase and endoribonuclease inositol-requiring enzyme-1alpha (IRE1alpha). We investigated UPR signaling events in mice in the absence of the proapoptotic BCL-2 family members BAX and BAK [double knockout (DKO)]. DKO mice responded abnormally to tunicamycin-induced ER stress in the liver, with extensive tissue damage and decreased expression of the IRE1 substrate X-box-binding protein 1 and its target genes. ER-stressed DKO cells showed deficient IRE1alpha signaling. BAX and BAK formed a protein complex with the cytosolic domain of IRE1alpha that was essential for IRE1alpha activation. Thus, BAX and BAK function at the ER membrane to activate IRE1alpha signaling and to provide a physical link between members of the core apoptotic pathway and the UPR.     

PUMA couples the nuclear and cytoplasmic proapoptotic function of p53

The Trp53 tumor suppressor gene product (p53) functions in the nucleus to regulate proapoptotic genes, whereas cytoplasmic p53 directly activates proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins to permeabilize mitochondria and initiate apoptosis. Here, we demonstrate that a tripartite nexus between Bcl-xL, cytoplasmic p53, and PUMA coordinates these distinct p53 functions. After genotoxic stress, Bcl-xL sequestered cytoplasmic p53. Nuclear p53 caused expression of PUMA, which then displaced p53 from Bcl-xL, allowing p53 to induce mitochondrial permeabilization. Mutant Bcl-xL that bound p53, but not PUMA, rendered cells resistant to p53-induced apoptosis irrespective of PUMA expression. Thus, PUMA couples the nuclear and cytoplasmic proapoptotic functions of p53.     

Posttranslational N-myristoylation of BID as a molecular switch for targeting mitochondria and apoptosis

Many apoptotic molecules relocate subcellularly in cells undergoing apoptosis. The pro-apoptotic protein BID underwent posttranslational (rather than classic cotranslational) N-myristoylation when cleavage by caspase 8 caused exposure of a glycine residue. N-myristoylation enabled the targeting of a complex of p7 and myristoylated p15 fragments of BID to artificial membranes bearing the lipid composition of mitochondria, as well as to intact mitochondria. This post-proteolytic N-myristoylation serves as an activating switch, enhancing BID-induced release of cytochrome c and cell death.     

昆虫细胞凋亡的线粒体通路研究进展

介绍了哺乳动物和一些代表昆虫的线粒体凋亡途径研究进展,特别是与线粒体途径密切相关的凋亡调控因子,如细胞色素C,caspases家族,Bcl-2家族等的功能作用,阐述了线粒体在昆虫细胞凋亡中的作用,为进一步研究昆虫细胞凋亡机制以及发展以昆虫细胞凋亡因子为靶标的特异性杀虫剂提供理论基础。     

Complex I binding by a virally encoded RNA regulates mitochondria-induced cell death

Human cytomegalovirus infection perturbs multiple cellular processes that could promote the release of proapoptotic stimuli. Consequently, it encodes mechanisms to prevent cell death during infection. Using rotenone, a potent inhibitor of the mitochondrial enzyme complex I (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-ubiquinone oxido-reductase), we found that human cytomegalovirus infection protected cells from rotenone-induced apoptosis, a protection mediated by a 2.7-kilobase virally encoded RNA (beta2.7). During infection, beta2.7 RNA interacted with complex I and prevented the relocalization of the essential subunit genes associated with retinoid/interferon-induced mortality-19, in response to apoptotic stimuli. This interaction, which is important for stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential, resulted in continued adenosine triphosphate production, which is critical for the successful completion of the virus' life cycle. Complex I targeting by a viral RNA represents a refined strategy to modulate the metabolic viability of the infected host cell.     

细胞凋亡与细胞色素C

细胞凋亡是动植物最基本的生命活动,是一个有一系列酶参与的,并且由基因控制的主动的、高度有序的死亡过程。线粒体除了为细胞提供能量外,在细胞凋亡中也起着中心调控作用。研究发现,线粒体释放的细胞色素C是细胞凋亡过程的关键因素,已是近些年研究的热点。本文就细胞色素C从线粒体释放的机制及在凋亡中的作用进行综述。     

Role of BAX in the apoptotic response to anticancer agents

To assess the role of BAX in drug-induced apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells, we generated cells that lack functional BAX genes. Such cells were partially resistant to the apoptotic effects of the chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil, but apoptosis was not abolished. In contrast, the absence of BAX completely abolished the apoptotic response to the chemopreventive agent sulindac and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs inhibited the expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-XL, resulting in an altered ratio of BAX to Bcl-XL and subsequent mitochondria-mediated cell death. These results establish an unambiguous role for BAX in apoptotic processes in human epithelial cancers and may have implications for cancer chemoprevention strategies.     

Mitochondria and the autophagy-inflammation-cell death axis in organismal aging

Alterations of mitochondrial functions are linked to multiple degenerative or acute diseases. As mitochondria age in our cells, they become progressively inefficient and potentially toxic, and acute damage can trigger the permeabilization of mitochondrial membranes to initiate apoptosis or necrosis. Moreover, mitochondria have an important role in pro-inflammatory signaling. Autophagic turnover of cellular constituents, be it general or specific for mitochondria (mitophagy), eliminates dysfunctional or damaged mitochondria, thus counteracting degeneration, dampening inflammation, and preventing unwarranted cell loss. Decreased expression of genes that regulate autophagy or mitophagy can cause degenerative diseases in which deficient quality control results in inflammation and the death of cell populations. Thus, a combination of mitochondrial dysfunction and insufficient autophagy may contribute to multiple aging-associated pathologies.     

细胞凋亡对宰后肌肉嫩化作用机理的研究进展

嫩度是决定肉食用品质的重要指标。宰后肉的嫩度发生不连续变化,严重降低了消费者的购买意愿,因此阐明宰后嫩化机理一直是肉品科学领域的研究热点。自“凋亡”的概念引入至宰后肌肉嫩化过程后一直广受关注,动物被屠宰放血后,活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS）大量累积,ATP（adenosine triphosphate）逐渐耗尽,必然导致细胞死亡。宰后肌细胞死亡和肌肉嫩化都是在一系列调控因子作用下激活肌肉内源酶,并由内源酶水解蛋白质破坏细胞结构,因此这两个生化过程被认为高度相关。本文综述了宰后肌细胞主要以凋亡的形式死亡,分析了除凋亡外,宰后早期产生少量ROS时细胞会通过自噬启动自身防御系统,宰后后期ATP逐渐耗尽肌细胞可能从凋亡转变为坏死;明确了线粒体通路是宰后肌肉中细胞凋亡酶激活的关键路径,线粒体死亡因子释放是细胞内死亡级联反应的总开关,其开放状态直接决定着细胞以何种途径进行死亡,并进一步从线粒体膜通透化和内膜嵴重构两方面,讨论了宰后线粒体损伤诱导凋亡因子的释放机理;综述了线粒体损伤变化及其对嫩化过程的影响,并从线粒体通过参与能量代谢影响肌肉pH以及通过释放凋亡因子调控细胞凋亡酶活性两方面分析了其潜在机理;探讨了宰后肌肉线粒体与内质网间相互作用以影响Ca²⁺信号传导以及细胞凋亡过程,或与溶酶体相互作用,破坏溶酶体膜稳定性,使其释放组织蛋白酶以激活线粒体Bax和Bid而加速线粒体膜通透性;综述了细胞凋亡酶在宰后早期被激活,并参与部分肌原纤维蛋白的有限降解,但随着宰后时间的延长,ATP逐渐耗尽等因素导致细胞凋亡酶失活,因此细胞凋亡酶只参与宰后早期的嫩化过程。综述内容可为完善宰后肌肉嫩化过程提供理论参考。     

Activation of apoptosis in vivo by a hydrocarbon-stapled BH3 helix

BCL-2 family proteins constitute a critical control point for the regulation of apoptosis. Protein interaction between BCL-2 members is a prominent mechanism of control and is mediated through the amphipathic alpha-helical BH3 segment, an essential death domain. We used a chemical strategy, termed hydrocarbon stapling, to generate BH3 peptides with improved pharmacologic properties. The stapled peptides, called "stabilized alpha-helix of BCL-2 domains" (SAHBs), proved to be helical, protease-resistant, and cell-permeable molecules that bound with increased affinity to multidomain BCL-2 member pockets. A SAHB of the BH3 domain from the BID protein specifically activated the apoptotic pathway to kill leukemia cells. In addition, SAHB effectively inhibited the growth of human leukemia xenografts in vivo. Hydrocarbon stapling of native peptides may provide a useful strategy for experimental and therapeutic modulation of protein-protein interactions in many signaling pathways.