Density stratification in ionically enriched Onondaga lake,U.S.A.

Denstity stratification was characterized in ionically enriched Onondaga Lake for a 7 mo period of 1980, based on paired profiles of temperature and cloride collected at 1 m depth intervals from a single deep water location on 54 different occasions. The lake was both thermally and chemically stratified. The chemical component represented 38.5% of the density stratification for the study period. It was most often the dominant component in establishing the depth of the upper mixed layer, which was unusually shallow in the lake. Further, the presense of the chemical component prolonged the stratification period. The chemical component of stratification decreased progressively through the study. The altered stratification characteristics of the lake may have negative effects on the level of biomass in the upper waters and the oxygen resources of the lower waters.     

Mercury cycling in the water column of a seasonally anoxic urban lake (Onondaga Lake,NY)

Onondaga Lake, New York, is a hypereutrophic, urban lake that was subjected to industrial discharges of mercury (Hg) between 1947 and 1988. Water samples were collected from April through November 1992 and analyzed for filtered and unfiltered total Hg, methylmercury (CH₃Hg), dimethylmercury, ionic Hg, and elemental Hg to characterize the biogeochemical cycling of Hg during water column stratification and hypolimnetic anoxia. In the spring and late fall when the water column was isothermal, total Hg and CH₃Hg concentrations were relatively constant throughout the water column, at approximately 3–7 ng/L and 0.3–1 ng/L, respectively. Through the summer and early fall, CH₃Hg concentrations systematically increased in the deeper waters, reaching peak concentration in August and September. In September 1992, CH₃Hg concentrations increased from 0.3 ng/L in the epilimnion to 10.6 ng/L in the hypolimnion, an increase of nearly 2 orders of magnitude. At the same time, total Hg increased from 6.6 ng/L in surface water to 21.7 ng/L at depth, a 3-fold increase. The spatial and temporal patterns observed for CH₃Hg agree well with manganese, suggesting that CH₃Hg and manganese are controlled by processes of the same or parallel cycles.     

Distribution of mercury in the aquatic food web of Onondaga Lake,New York

Historical discharges of mercury (Hg) to Onondaga Lake, New York, have resulted in elevated Hg concentrations in lake fishes. In 1990, a remedial investigation and feasibility study (RI/FS) was initiated to evaluate problems related to Hg and other hazardous substances in the lake. As part of the RI/FS, the distribution of Hg in the aquatic food web was determined to provide input to a site-specific model of Hg cycling and to evaluate potential ecological risks of Hg in the lake. Mercury concentrations were measured in surficial sediments, sediment interstitial water, lake water, phytoplankton, Zooplankton, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fishes (including planktivores, benthivores, and piscivores). The percentage of total Hg accounted for by methyl-Hg (CH₃Hg) generally increased with higher trophic levels, confirming that CH₃Hg is more efficiently transferred to higher trophic levels than is inorganic Hg. Concentrations of total Hg in amphipods and chironomids were closely related to concentrations of total Hg in sediments, suggesting that sediments are a likely source of Hg for benthic macroinvertebrates. Mercury concentrations in edible muscle tissue (fillets) of lake fishes have declined substantially from values found in the early 1970s, reflecting the large reductions in Hg discharges to the lake that have occurred since that time. The CH₃Hg concentrations in fillets and whole bodies of fishes generally were similar, indicating that concentrations in fillets often can provide estimates of concentrations in whole bodies. Methyl-Hg concentrations and bioaccumulation factors increased with higher trophic levels in both the pelagic and benthic components of the lake food web.     

Dry Weight Deposition in Polluted Onondaga Lake,New York,U.S.A.

Short and long-term trends in dry weight deposition rates are documented for polluted Onondaga Lake, NY, based on analyses of sediment trap collections made below the epilimnion at a single deep-water location in ten years over the 1980–1992 period using cylindrical traps. Additionally, comparisons of dry weight rates obtained with two different diameter (4.0 and 7.6 cm) traps of the same aspect ratio (6), at four different depths below the epilimnion, and from the lake's two basins, in 1993, are presented to establish the representativeness of the long-term data. The near equivalence of fluxes determined with the different size traps and cumulative deposition rates measured over the range of deployment depths, and the minor differences in flux observed for the two basins, supports the representativeness of long-term data in quantifying deposition rates for the pelagic zone of the lake. Short-term variations in downward flux have been common in the lake over the period of monitoring. The summer-average dry weight deposition rate decreased systematically (by about 45%) following the closure (in 1986) of a soda ash facility that caused enhanced rates of calcium carbonate deposition; from an average of 23.2 to 12.8 g m-² d-¹. These dry weight deposition rates are high compared to values reported in the literature for other lakes, and are responsible for the lake's high rate of net sedimentation.     

A chloride budget for Onondaga Lake,New York,U.S.A.

A Cl budget is presented for a 12 yr period (1970–1981) for Cl enriched (approximate volume-weighted average concentration of 1500 mg Cl L^?1) Onondaga Lake, New York. The budget utilizes continuous discharge and lake and stream water chemistry data, collected at an interval of approximately 2 weeks, over the 12 yr study period. Budget calculations are supplemented by high frequency water chemistry data from the lake and the tributary carrying the major portion of the loading. More than 85% of the external load of Cl (approximately 9 × 10⁸ kg yr^?1) to the lake originates from an alkali manufacturer. Export of Cl from the lake was highly correlated to outflow from the lake (R = 0.915, for a resolution of 1 mo). A good balance between estimated external loads and lake export was obtained (within 7%) for the 12 yr period, indicating that lake concentrations are consistent with external loading of this conservative substance. The results of this analysis contradict previous calculations that indicated 40 to 50% of the Cl in the lake originated from natural internal sources.     

Chloride cycling in two forested lake watersheds in the west-central adirondack mountains,New York,U.S.A.

The chemistry of precipitation, throughfall, soil water, ground water, and surface water was evaluated in two forested lake-watersheds over a 4-yr period to assess factors controlling Cl^? cycling. Results indicate that Cl^? cycling in these watersheds is more complex than the generally held view of the rapid transport of atmospherically derived Cl^? through the excosystem. The annual throughfall Cl^? flux for individual species in the northern hardwood forest was 2 to 5 times that of precipitation (56 eq ha^?1), whereas the Na⁺ throughfall flux, in general, was similar to the precipitation flux. Concentrations of soil-water Cl^? sampled from ceramic tension lysimeters at 20 cm below land surface generally exceeded the Na⁺ concentrations and averaged 31 μeq L^?1, the highest of any waters sampled in the watersheds, except throughfall under red spruce which averaged 34 μeq L^?1. Chloride was concentrated prior to storms and mobilized rapidly during storms as suggested by increases in streamwater Cl^? concentrations with increasing flow. Major sources of Cl^? in both watersheds are the forest floor and hornblende weathering in the soils and till. In the Panther Lake watershed, which contains mainly thick deposits of till (>3 m), hornblende weathering results in a net Cl^? flux 3 times greater than that in the Woods Lake watershed, which contains mainly thin deposits of till. The estimated accumulation rate of Cl^? in the biomass of the two watersheds was comparable to the precipitation Cl^? flux.     

Seasonal variability in the Mercury speciation of Onondaga Lake (New York)

Dissolved and particulate Hg speciation was determined on four occasions in the Spring to Fall interval of 1989, at three depths of the water column of Onondaga Lake, New York; an urban system in which the sediments and fish flesh are contaminated with H_g. Species determined included total Hg (Hg_t), reactive (‘ionic’) Hg (Hg_i), monomethylmercury (CH₃HgX), elemental Hg (Hg°) and dimethylmercury (CH₃)₂Hg). Onondaga Lake was found to contain very high levels of Hg_t (2 to 25 ng L^?1 Hg), Hg_j (0.5 to 10 ng L^?1 Hg), and CH₃HgX (0.3 to 7 ng L^?1 Hg), which generally increased with depth in the lake. These concentrations represent a significant level of contamination, based upon comparisons with other polluted and pristine sites. Elemental Hg levels were typically about 0.05 ng L^?1 and (CH₃)₂Hg was near the limits of detection (?0.001 ng) L^?1 in most samples. The greatest CH₃HgX concentrations in the hypolimnion, as well as the largest gradients of both CH₃HgX and (Hg_t), were observed upon the first onset of stratification, in early summer. These concentrations did not become more pronounced, however, as stratification and H₂S levels in the hypolimnion increased throughout the summer. The very low concentrations of (CH₃)₂Hg in these MeHg and sulfide-rich waters calls into question the belief that CH₃HgX and H₂S will react to yield volatile dimethyl-mercury, which can then escape to the atmosphere by diffusion. Mercury speciation was highly dynamic, indicating active cycling within the lake, and an apparent sensitivity to changes in attendant Iimnological conditions that track the stratification cycle.     

Modeling the transport and fate of mercury in an urban lake (Onondaga Lake,NY)

A mass balance model was developed to simulate mercury (Hg) cycling in Onondaga Lake, New York. MERC4, a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency model of the physical and biogeochemical transport and transformation of Hg, was modified by the addition of input from two supporting models (Fish Bioenergetics Model 2 and a lake eutrophication model) to model the transport of Hg into and out of plankton and fish. The model calculates the concentrations of total Hg, methylmercury, elemental Hg, and ionic Hg in both dissolved and particulate forms in the water column. The model was calibrated to an extensive data set of temporally and spatially variable Hg concentrations in Onondaga Lake in 1992. In addition to standard transport processes of advection and dispersion included in MERC4, the Onondaga Lake Mercury Model includes remineralization to simulate release of Hg from settling particulates before incorporation into sediment. The model provides an analytical framework for understanding and predicting the behavior of Hg in Onondaga Lake and has potential use in evaluating the relative impact of different source control and remedial alternatives.     

The distribution of nitrogen species in polluted Onondaga Lake,N.Y., U.S.A.

The temporal and vertical distributions of four N species, N0₃ ^?, NO₂ ^?, total ammonia (T-NH₃), and free ammonia (NH₃), are documented for Onondaga Lake, an urban, polluted, hypereutrophic, dimictic, lake that receives a very high load of T-NH₃. Nitrate and NO₂ ^? were lost rapidly from the hypolimnion, and T-NH₃ accumulated to high concentrations (maximum > 10 mgN L^?1), after the onset of anoxia, consistent with the lake's high level of productivity. The concentrations of T-NH₃, NH₃ and N0₃ ^? that were maintained in the epilimnion (average concentrations at a depth of 1 m of 2.81, 0.16 and 0.91 mgN L^?1, respectively), and concentrations of N0₂ ^? that developed in the epilimnion (maximum of 0.48 mgN L^?1), were high in comparison to levels reported in the literature. These elevated concentrations are largely a result of the extremely high loads of T-NH₃, and its precursors, received by the lake. Water quality problems in the lake related to the prevailing high concentrations of N species include potential toxicity effects and severe lake-wide oxygen depletion during fall turnover.     

Total mercury and methylmercury mass balance in an alkaline,hypereutrophic urban lake (Onondaga Lake,NY)

A total mercury (total Hg) and methylmercury (CH₃Hg) mass balance was developed for Onondaga Lake, NY, based on sampling of tributaries, sediments, water column, and biota in 1992. Thein situ flux of total Hg and CH₃Hg from sediments to the overlying water and the rate of net CH₃Hg production in the water column were determined experimentally. Fluxes from atmospheric deposition, groundwater, and volatilization were estimated from limited field data and the literature. Ultraclean sampling and analytical techniques developed specifically for Hg were used. Results indicate that tributaries contribute the majority of total Hg entering the lake (13.6 kg in 1992). Other sources of total Hg included groundwater flux (0.02 kg), atmospheric deposition (0.44 kg), and flux from sediments (0.056 kg). Net sedimentation (11.1 kg), outflow (2.8 kg), and volatilization (0.016 kg) were sinks for total Hg. The two major sources of CH3_Hg were tributaries (0.26 kg) and net CH₃Hg production in the water column (0.60 kg). Flux from sediments accounted for only 0.017 kg CH₃Hg. Net sedimentation (0.47 kg), outflow (0.24 kg), and net uptake, by fish (0.20 kg) were sinks for CH₃Hg. Gross sedimentation of CH₃Hg exceeded net sedimentation by 90%, suggesting that release of CH₃Hg from settling particles is a significant process.     

Distribution of phosphates in Lake Mariut,a heavily polluted lake in Egypt

In recent years Lake Mariut was subjected to severe pollution. The phosphate content of this Lake was exceedingly higher than that of the other Egyptian Lakes. The distribution of phosphates in Lake Mariut was found to depend upon certain factors which were discussed.     

Application of the Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) to Predict the Fate and Remediation of Mercury in Onondaga Lake,New York

Onondaga Lake exhibits elevated concentrations of total mercury (HgT) and methyl-mercury (MeHg) in the water column, sediments and fish tissue due to industrial inputs, wastewater discharge and urban runoff. The steady-state Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) was calibrated to Onondaga Lake and applied to evaluate various remediation scenarios. Because of detailed data available for Onondaga Lake, the RMCM was effectively calibrated. Model predictions of water column and fish concentrations of Hg generally agreed with measured values. The model underestimated concentrations of Hg in sediments. Mass balance calculations show that inputs of HgT largely originate from tributary and wastewater inflows to the lake. In contrast, MeHg is largely derived from internal production. Model calculations suggest that elimination of Hg inputs from wastewater effluent and of drainage from a former chlor-alkali facility could greatly decrease Hg concentrations in fish tissue.     

The oxygen resources of the hypolimnion of ionically enriched onondaga lake,NY, U.S.A.

The depletion of hypolimnetic DO and the upper depth boundary of anoxia for four different years (1978, 1979, 1980 and 1981), and the accumulation of sulfide for a single year (1981), are documented for ionically enriched hypereutrophic Onondaga Lake, NY, USA. The depletion rate, represented as the areal hypolimnetic oxygen deficit (AHOD, g m^?2 day^?1), was extremely high (1.2–2.7 g m^?2 day^?1), The large differences in the rate within individual years and from year to year were largely a result of differences in attendant vertical mixing (parameterized as the hypolimnetic heating rate). The entire hypolimnion (depth interval from 11 to 20 m) was without O₂ by late June of all 4 yr; anoxia was observed above the hypolimnion on some occasions when secondary stratification occurred. Sulfide accumulated progressively in the hypolimnion in 1981 following the onset of anoxia to a volume weighted concentration of I1 mg L^?1. The ionic discharge from an adjoining alkali manufacturer exacerbated the problem of limited O₂ resources of the hypolimnion by: (1) decreasing vertical mixing, (2) prolonging the duration of stratification, (3) causing abbreviated turnovers, and (4) encouraging increased rates of phytoplankton settling.     

Long-term trends in the chemistry of precipitation and lake water in the Adirondack Region of New York,USA

Long-term changes in the chemistry of precipitation (1978–94) and 16 lakes (1982–94) were investigated in the Adirondack region of New York, USA. Time-series analysis showed that concentrations of SO₄ ^2–, NO₃ ^–, NH₄ ⁺ and basic cations have decreased in precipitation, resulting in increases in pH. A relatively uniform rate of decline in SO₄ ^2– concentrations in lakes across the region (1.81±0.35 eq L^–1 yr^–1) suggests that this change was due to decreases in atmospheric deposition. The decrease in lake SO₄ ^2– was considerably less than the rate of decline anticipated from atmospheric deposition. This discrepancy may be due to release of previously deposited SO₄ ^2– from soil, thereby delaying the recovery of lake water acidity. Despite the marked declines in concentrations of SO₄ ^2– in Adirondack lakes, there has been no systematic increase in pH and ANC. The decline in SO₄ ^2– has corresponded with a near stoichiometric decrease in concentrations of basic cations in low ANC lakes. A pattern of increasing NO₃ ^– concentrations that was evident in lakes across the region during the 1980's has been followed by a period of lower concentrations. Currently there are no significant trends in NO₃ ^– concentrations in Adirondack lakes.     

Soil nitrogen cycling under litter and coarse woody debris in a mixed forest in New York State

Coarse woody debris (CWD) could alter N availability and transformations in the underlying soil and therefore contribute to spatial heterogeneity and influence ecosystem loss of N. We measured soil N concentrations and transformations in soil beneath CWD and beneath a litter layer at a mixed forest in NY State. We found that total and microbial biomass N was lower and that microbial biomass C-to-N ratio was higher in soil beneath CWD. Rates of N₂O production and denitrification enzyme activity were reduced beneath CWD. These results suggest that CWD is an important controller of spatial heterogeneity in N dynamics and may influence the magnitude of N loss in temperate forests.     

Thorium 230 determination in polluted lake water — A study of interferences

The effect of contaminants, both known and unidentified, in interfering with the coprecipitation of ²³⁴Th tracer with BaSO₄ is described. The effect is illustrated by results obtained on water from Nero Lake, a uranium mine tailings dumping area. While most of the components of the water are known, attempts to duplicate the effect using synthetic water were less successful. Thus some strongly interfering substance in the water remains to be identified. A successful alternative method for Ra and Th determination is mentioned.     

Phosphorus loads from peaty polders in the SW Frisian lake District,The Netherlands

The purpose of this study was to quantify discharges and P-loads from peaty polders (total surface area 11560 ha) surrounding lakes in south-western Friesland , and to examine whether processes inside the polders contribute to the P-loads to the lakes. A detailed study in the Echtener Veenpolder (2850 ha), the largest polder in the study area, showed annuall gross P-loads of 1.3 to 1.83 kg P ha^?1 polder area and net P-loads of 0.63 to 1.48 kg P ha^?1 Processes inside this polder, such as leaching, surface runoff, resuspension, spreading manure and fertilizers, can result in high total P concentrations (TP) in discharged polder water (up to 0.9 mg L^?1) and therefore contribute to the P-load from the polder to lake Tjeukemeer. During 1984–1987 the averaged TP concentrations in polder water were higher than in lake Tjeukemeer water: 0.37 mg L^?1 and 0.28 mg L^?1, respectively. The annual gross P-loads from 11 other polders ranged from 1.01 to 4.13 kg P ha^?1 polder area, while TP concentrations reached values up to 3.0 mg L^?1. The P-loads from five polders to lake Tjeukemeer were high compared with the loads to the other lakes in the district. Particularly, during the winter period (October–April) P-loads were highest: up to 3.13 kg P ha^?1. This paper shows that hydrological measures and the reduction of the concentrations are important to combat the eutrophication problem in the lakes. However, for an optimally integrated water management of the polders, further research is needed to develop, for example, dynamical water and P balances in order to gain a better insight into the role of agriculture.     

太湖流域不同类型区河流水体磷形态分布及矿化速率

采用野外采样与室内实验相结合,对种植业(A)、养殖业(B)和生活污水(C)3种影响类型河流水体中磷的形态、矿化速率和周转时间进行分析研究。结果表明,B类型影响的河流水体中总磷(TP)、可溶解性总磷(TDP)和溶解性反应磷(SRP)浓度略高于A类型,却远低于C类型影响的河流水体;但河流水体中可酶解磷(EHP)浓度则相反,以A类型影响的河流水体最高,丰水期最高可达0.11 mg L-1,而C类型影响的河流水体EHP浓度则较低。实验数据显示受农业影响的河流水体磷的矿化速率明显高于C类型影响的河流水体,尤其在丰水期,A类型影响的河流水体中磷的矿化速率最高可达1.437 nmol L-1min-1。研究表明水体中磷的矿化速率与EHP浓度呈正相关关系;受农业影响的河流水体磷的周转时间为3～7 d,低于C类型影响的河流水体的9.1 d。以上结果说明环太湖河流水体磷的形态分布、转化与影响水体的类型密切相关,生活污水对环太湖河流总磷贡献较大,而农业生产所产生的磷其生物可利用性更强。     

Salinity,chloride, and density relationships in ion enriched Onondaga Lake,NY

The relationship between salinity (S), chlorinity (Cl) and density (d) for the ion polluted (S = 3 to 4.5‰) and stratified Onondaga Lake are presented. The data base includes 220 determinations of the major ionic components collected from ten equally spaced depths. The salinity (S) and ionic strength (I) in the lake can be estimated from S = 1.85 Cl ? 0.28, where Cl is in g kg^?1 and I = 1.456 [Cl^?] ? 0.039, where [Cl] is in mmol L^?1. Due to the high concentration of Ca²⁺ in the lake, the seawater equation of state (Chen and Millero, 1977a) could not be used to estimate reliable densities for the lake (Δd ～ 100 × 10^?6 g cm^?3). A reliable equation of state for Onondaga Lake was derived from the composition data $$d = d_0 + A_v {\text{ }}CL + B_v {\text{ }}Cl^{3/2} $$ where d ₀ is the density of water (g cm^?3), A _v is a temperature dependent parameter related to the infinite dilution apparent molal volumes and B _v is related to the ion-ion interactions of the lake salts. The high ionic content of the lake depresses the temperature of maximum density to 3.18°C and alters the stratification of the lake. The salinity component of the stratification represents 40% of the total density stratification.