Dietary and Manure Management Practices on Equine Farms in Two New Jersey Watersheds

Equine farms are increasing in number in Northeast and Mid-Atlantic states. These farms may influence environmental quality owing to manure collection, storage, spreading, and disposal practices. A manure management survey was mailed to 700 New Jersey equine farms during the winter of 2009-2010 (these farms were located in two watersheds). Two hundred forty-two surveys were returned; 10% were training or performance farms, whereas the remainder (90%) were breeding, boarding, or pleasure farms. There were differences between the two watersheds in turnout time, pasture acreage, use of drag harrows, and income. Respondents answered questions about diet and environmental management on farms. Seventy-eight percent had bunk management plans. Forty-seven percent disposed of waste feed in a manure pile, 35% left it on fields or paddocks, and 18% put it in a dumpster. Twenty-six percent engage a professional for feeding advice (21% veterinarians, 2% extension, 3% nutrition consultants). Most respondents did not have a regular feed management plan. Sixty-two percent of all farms spread manure on-farm. Of those who spread, 29% have >8.09 hectares (20 acres) for spreading. Ninety-six percent of respondents stored manure >100 ft from water or wetlands. Comparison of cross-tabulations indicates a strong relationship (P < .01) between rotational grazing and the use of a sacrifice or exercise area. Eighty-eight percent of respondents using sacrifice areas also rotationally graze. Results indicate future outreach programs should focus on feed management, manure storage location, rotational grazing, and the use of sacrifice areas as part of a pasture management program.     

Use of Best Management Practices and Pasture and Soil Quality on Maryland Horse Farms

Agricultural operations, including horse farms, can contribute nonpoint source (NPS) pollution to surface water. The use of best management practices (BMPs) is the most effective way to prevent the movement of pollutants to surface water from nonpoint source pollution. Previous mailed survey studies have assessed the use of BMPs at the county and state level, but a visual assessment of horse farms is necessary to validate survey results. An observational field study was conducted to assess BMP use and soil and pasture quality and to create a model to predict soil erosion on Maryland horse farms. Fifty-one farms were selected based on stocking density (acres per horse [ac horse^-1]), farm use, and presence of water on property. All farms were visited from September through November 2009. In each pasture with grazing horses, the correct use of BMPs was assessed, grass height and vegetative cover were measured, and composite soil samples were collected. Less than half of the 18 assessed BMPs were being used by participants. Although most participants maintained the recommended vegetative cover and grass height, soil erosion was a major problem in pastures. Most farms had optimum soil nutrient concentrations (Ca, K, and P), excessive Mg values, and basic soil pH. Vegetative cover and grass height measurements were positively correlated with stocking density (r = 0.345, P < .0001; and r = 0.291, P < .0001, respectively). Farm use was the only variable that predicted soil erosion on farms (P = .006). Farms used for pleasure were least likely to have soil erosion, whereas farms used for breeding were more likely to have soil erosion (P = .0058). Despite the low-to-moderate adoption of BMPs, the maintenance of recommended vegetative cover and grass height as well as optimum values of soil nutrients indicated participating Maryland horse farms have a low potential for nutrient movement and NPS pollution.     

Information-Seeking Preferences of the Colorado Equine Industry for Distribution of Disease Outbreak Information

The purpose of this study was to learn how perceptions of accuracy and availability of sources affect how members of the Colorado equine industry seek both everyday information and information during an equine disease outbreak. A survey was distributed by email and social media to members of Colorado-based equine organizations. A total of 256 survey responses were obtained from individuals representing a spectrum of ages and roles in the Colorado equine industry. Survey participants predominantly identified as female (95.3%) and their industry role as a horse owner (41%) or a competitive (25.8%) or pleasure (13.3%) rider. Younger survey participants reported greater (P < .0001) use of social media, and both participant age (P < .015) and information source (P < .0001) affected the perception of resource accuracy. In the event of an equine disease outbreak, industry role was an important factor (P = .003) in the selection of news sources, whereas age was not (P = .19). Many participants (56%) identified disease symptoms/signs to be the most important information to be sought during a disease outbreak and most (69.9%) preferred state or veterinary resources for this information. The identification of why Colorado equine industry members access information from specific sources may guide animal health and extension professionals to tailor their online presence to best meet the communication needs of the Colorado equine industry.     

Salmonella Oranienburg Isolated from Horses,Wild Turkeys and An Edible Home Garden Fertilized with Raw Horse Manure

In July 2010, a horse from a rural farm (Farm A) in coastal Northern California was diagnosed with Salmonella Oranienburg infection following referral to a veterinary hospital for colic surgery. Environmental sampling to identify potential sources and persistence of Salmonella on the farm was conducted from August 2010 to March 2011. Salmonella was cultured using standard enrichment and selective plating. Pure colonies were confirmed by biochemical analysis, serotyped and compared by pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis. A total of 204 clinical and environmental samples at Farm A were analysed, and Salmonella spp. was isolated from six of eight (75%) horses, an asymptomatic pet dog, two of seven (28.6%) water samples from horse troughs, nine of 20 (45%) manure storage pile composites, 16 of 71 (22.5%) wild turkey faeces and four of 39 (10.3%) soil samples from the family's edible home garden. Well water and garden vegetable samples and horse faecal samples from a neighbouring ranch were negative. S. Oranienburg with a PFGE pattern indistinguishable from the horse clinical strain was found in all positive sample types on Farm A. The investigation illustrates the potential for widespread dissemination of Salmonella in a farm environment following equine infections. We speculate that a recent surge in the wild turkey population on the property could have introduced S. Oranienburg into the herd, although we cannot rule out the possibility wild turkeys were exposed on the farm or to other potential sources of Salmonella. Findings from the investigation indicated that raw horse manure applied as fertilizer was the most likely source of garden soil contamination. Viable S. Oranienburg persisted in garden soil for an estimated 210 days, which exceeds the 120‐day standard between application and harvest currently required by the National Organic Program. The study underscores the need to educate the public about potential food safety hazards associated with using raw animal manure to fertilize edible home gardens.     

A survey of equine parasite control practices in Tennessee

A weighted, random sample of 130 horse owners in Tennessee was selected from subscribers to an equine newsletter published by the Agricultural Extension Service. Data about the participants' farms, horses, parasite control practices, and sources of information regarding equine parasite control were obtained through a telephone survey. The response rate was 98%. The typical respondent kept 4 horses on 2 pastures totaling 15 acres, and did not rotate pastures as a parasite control measure. The majority (83%) of horse owners indicated that they administered anthelmintics according to a regular schedule; 9% delayed deworming until the onset of weight loss. Proportions of owners deworming the various classes of horses at least 1, 2, 3, or 4 times annually were as follows: foals (0 to 6 months) 100, 60, 15, and 0%, respectively; weanlings (6 to 12 months) 100, 91, 32, and 0%, respectively; yearlings (1 to 2 years) 100, 100, 86, and 51%, respectively; and adults (greater than 2 years) 100, 94, 56, and 24%, respectively. Median treatments of yearlings and adults were evenly spaced at 6-, 4-, or 3-month intervals when the owners dewormed 2, 3, or 4 times annually, respectively. Mean intervals between treatments of foals and weanlings were less regular. Of the horse owners who dewormed 2 or more times annually, most (53 to 80%) used the same product exclusively for all treatments. In all age classes of horses, ivermectin paste (46 to 63%) was the most common product used, followed by tube deworming (23 to 38%) and use of benzimidazoles (4 to 16%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A brief note on the information-seeking behavior of UK leisure horse owners

Equine welfare charities have identified the education of (primarily novice) horse owners as the principal route to tackling the majority of equine welfare problems in the United Kingdom. To reach and educate owners effectively, we must understand where they seek advice about issues that arise when owning or caring for a horse. Questions regarding information-seeking behavior were included in an Internet survey completed by a convenience sample of 1,326 UK leisure horse owners, recruited online and through electronic and postal mail shots to equestrian clubs and establishments. The questions asked where the owners sought advice regarding 4 different subject areas: horse behavior, health, stable care, and training. Respondents were asked to select their main sources of information from a list of 7—books/magazines, vet/farrier, instructor, Internet/forums, friends/family, tack shops, and other. Although books/magazines were the most frequently used information source across all 4 subject areas overall, there were differences between the 4 subject areas in the most commonly selected sources (χ² = 992, P < 0.001) and the number of sources consulted (χ² = 254, P < 0.001). Vets/farriers were the source consulted most frequently for health advice (Z = ?13.32, P < 0.001), instructors for training advice (Z = ?3.93, P < 0.001), and books/magazines for advice regarding both behavior (Z = ?9.49, P < 0.001) and stable care (Z = ?8.26, P < 0.001). Despite the survey mode and that many participants were recruited online, Internet/forums were only the third to the fifth most used of the 7 information sources, depending on the subject area. Logistic regression analyses identified significant associations between owner demographics (age, self-rated skill level, and self-reported rider type) and the likelihood of selecting a particular source for advice regarding a specific subject area. The findings have important implications for those trying to reach the horse-owning population to disseminate research findings and ultimately improve the welfare of their horses.     

Carbon footprint of poultry production farms in South Georgia: A case study

A study was conducted in South Georgia to assess the carbon footprint of poultry farms. The study included broiler grow-out farms, pullet farms, and breeder farms from one commercial broiler complex. Data collection included the fuel and electricity bills from each farm, house size and age, flock size and number of flocks per year, and manure management. Emissions were calculated using a greenhouse gas (GHG) calculation tool. The carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane (CH₄) emissions were computed and a carbon footprint determined. Carbon footprint comparisons were made based on house construction and age. Based on these results, an evaluation of the mechanical sources of emissions showed that approximately 96% of the emissions from the broiler and pullet farms were from propane use, while only 3.9% of the total mechanical emissions from breeder farms were from propane use. On breeder farms, 83% of mechanical GHG emissions were the result of electricity use, while the pullet and broiler grow-out farms accounted for 2.9 and 2.7%, respectively, of the total mechanical emissions from electricity use. The data collected from the farms and entered into the GHG calculation tool revealed that breeder houses had higher levels of CH₄ emissions from manure management when compared to emissions from broiler and pullet houses. Even though the GHG emissions from poultry production farms were minimal compared to other animal production farms, the different sources of emissions were identified, thereby enabling the farmer to target specific areas for mitigation.     

Using the recommended stocking density to predict equine pasture management

Best management practices for equine pastures include following the recommended stocking density, rotating, clipping, dragging manure, soil testing, and renovating as needed. Assuming these practices are implemented collectively, pasture resources can contribute significantly to annual forage needs. A survey was mailed to New Jersey pasture property owners in January 2000 to assess pasture management practices and determine the relationship between the recommended stocking density and individual management practices. Our survey indicates that many horse pasture managers follow individual recommendations, but generally do not implement multiple management practices. About 69% of survey respondents currently have between 0 and 20 horses. About 28% of respondents have between 6 and 10 acres of pasture, while only 20% have between 11 and 20 acres. Our analysis reveals a decreasing tendency to follow the recommended stocking density as horse numbers increase, but no difference as the number of acres of pasture changes. Our survey indicated that 66% soil test and about 45% fertilize every three years or greater while 50% lime pastures in intervals exceeding three years. The most commonly implemented management practice is mowing pastures (89%), while 54% of respondents rotate pastures. Despite the large proportion of managers that mow or rotate their pastures, there was generally only a small likelihood of these managers following the recommended stocking density and mowing, and no relationship between rotating and the recommended stocking density. Our results also indicate that at most about one-third of pasture managers have access to or own some piece of equipment used in pasture renovation or maintenance, although 92% make annual pasture expenditures. Consequently, pasture managers need additional information regarding the benefits of following best management practices to achieve the synergistic effect of multiple management practices on pasture productivity and persistence.     

Frequency of Rhodococcus equi in Feces of Mares in Central Kentucky

Rhodococcus equi (R equi) pneumonia is an important cause of disease and death in foals. Feces from mares can contain R equi, including virulent R equi, and thus may act as a source of the bacteria at horse breeding farms. A previous report documented that every mare at a farm in central Kentucky shed virulent R equi in at least one of four fecal samples collected serially during the periparturient period. The objective of this study was to assess the extent to which this high prevalence of fecal shedding could be replicated at other horse breeding farms. The frequency of detection of R equi and virulent R equi in fecal samples was studied among 131 mares from 24 farms in central Kentucky. The proportions of fecal samples from mares containing R equi and virulent R equi were 95% and 76%, respectively. These findings indicate that R equi and virulent R equi may be isolated with high frequency from feces of mares at breeding farms in central Kentucky, and that mares are a source of virulent R equi for the environment of their foals.     

Endoparasite control management on horse farms – lessons from worm prevalence and questionnaire data

Reasons for performing study: Increasing prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in equine nematodes calls for a reexamination of current parasite control programmes to identify factors influencing control efficacy and development of resistance. Objectives: To investigate if associations occur between prevalence of parasitic nematodes and management practices. Methods: German horse farms (n = 76) were investigated in 2003 and 2004. Information on farm and pasture management with respect to endoparasite control measures obtained using a questionnaire survey. Faecal examinations were performed in parallel. Results: Horses (n = 2000) were examined by faecal nematode egg counts, grouped into foals, yearlings and mature individuals for statistical analyses. Farms were categorised into 3 types, riding, stud farms and small holdings. Count regression models were used to analyse strongyle faecal egg count data. Following dichotomisation of faecal egg count (FEC) data, prevalence of strongyle and Parascaris equorum infections were assessed by logistic regression models as a function from various management factors. Yearlings on stud farms showed a 2‐fold higher risk of being positive for strongyle FEC, higher (i.e. ≥3 per year) anthelmintic drug treatment frequencies were associated with reduced strongyle infection rates only in mature individuals but not in foals or yearlings, foals on farms fertilising pastures with horse manure had a significantly higher risk of being P. equorum FEC positive and yearlings on stud farms were more often showing incomplete FECR following anthelmintic treatment compared to yearlings on other farm types. The mean yearly treatment frequencies per age group were: foals 4.52, yearlings 3.26 and mature horses 2.72 times, respectively. Conclusion and potential relevance: To delay the development of anthelmintic, resistance management should include additional nonchemotherapeutic parasite control strategies, FEC‐monitoring, controlled quarantine treatment of new arrivals and control of efficacy by the faecal egg count reduction test on a regular basis.     

Horse owners'/managers' perceptions about effectiveness of biosecurity measures based on their experiences during the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia

Following the first ever equine influenza outbreak in Australia in 2007, a study was conducted involving 200 horse owners and managers to determine their perceptions about effectiveness of biosecurity measures and the factors associated with these perceptions. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with horse owners/managers to obtain information about their perceptions of the effectiveness of biosecurity practices, their sources of information about infection control during the outbreak and their horse industry involvement. Two outcome variables were created from horse owners' responses to a 17-item question on the perceived effectiveness of various recommended equine influenza biosecurity measures: (a) a binary outcome variable (Low/High biosecurity effectiveness) and (b) a continuous outcome variable (the proportion of the 17 measures considered 'very effective'). These outcomes were used in binomial logistic and linear regression analyses, respectively, to determine factors associated with perceptions of biosecurity effectiveness. Variables with a p-value <0.05 in multivariable models were retained in the final models. The majority (83%) of the 200 horse owners and managers interviewed believed that more than half of the recommended equine influenza biosecurity measures were very effective for protecting their horses from equine influenza infection in the event of a future outbreak. Interviewees that were more likely to judge on-farm biosecurity measures as effective were those who received infection control information from a veterinarian during the outbreak, did not experience equine influenza infection in their horses, and those on small acreage premises (homes with horses on site). Greater levels of preparedness for a future equine influenza outbreak and greater interest in information about infection control were associated with a better perception about effectiveness of biosecurity measures. This study identified factors associated with horse owners' and managers' perception of effectiveness of biosecurity measures. These findings should be considered in the design of infection control programs.     

Diversity in horse enthusiasts with respect to horse welfare: An explorative study

A reduced level of welfare of horses is related to management factors such as low forage feeding, short feeding time, social isolation, and lack of unrestrained exercise. It has been assumed that welfare problems can be reduced and/or partly prevented by improving the knowledge and skills of horse enthusiasts. It has also been assumed that to improve the provision of information to horse enthusiasts, it is important to explore and gain more insight into horse enthusiasts’ motives, knowledge, and behavior. The aim of this exploratory study was to identify the diversity of horse enthusiasts in the Netherlands, with respect to the way they search and find out information, their emotional involvement with horses, and their attitude, their knowledge, and daily practices with regard to equine welfare. A Web-based survey using a 30-item questionnaire resulted in 4,267 respondents. Most respondents (84.6%) were female; the average age of the respondents was 34.2 (±13.5) years. More than half of the respondents (64.5%) believed that there were welfare problems throughout the whole horse industry. The most important reported source for information was the personal contact with other horse enthusiasts (82.8%), with veterinarians (74.5%), and with farriers (69.5%). It is, therefore, recommended that to disseminate relevant knowledge on equine welfare, particular attention should be paid to the acquisition and dissemination skills within the education programs of veterinarians and farriers. Although most respondents were aware of the issues that can compromise welfare, their knowledge did not always result in appropriate practices. Furthermore, a cluster analysis showed that horse enthusiasts can be categorized into 4 clusters from the way they search and find out information, their emotional involvement with horses, and their attitude, their knowledge, and daily practices with regard to the welfare of horses. To improve the provision of information to horse enthusiasts, it is recommended that the information provision to horse enthusiasts is organized around these 4 clusters of horse enthusiasts.     

High prevalence of chlamydial (Chlamydophila psittaci) infection in fetal membranes of aborted equine fetuses

Seventy-seven cases of equine abortion from 49 Hungarian farms that occurred between 1998 and 2000 were investigated for the presence of chlamydiae by immunohistochemistry, PCR and/or MZN staining. Evidence of the presence of these bacteria was obtained in 64 cases (83.1%) from 41 (83.7%) different farms. Partial ompA gene sequencing of PCR products revealed that the agent was Chlamydophila psittaci. Based on the findings of microbial diagnosis, pathology and case history, chlamydial infection was considered to be the most likely cause of abortion in at least 11 (14.3%) cases. In the remaining 53 Chlamydophila-positive cases, either other bacterial and viral agents (n = 22 or 28.6%) as well as non-infectious factors (n = 14 or 18.2%) were identified as more probable primary causes of disease, or the role of chlamydiae remained unclear because lesions in fetuses and fetal membranes were absent (n = 17 or 22.1%). When chlamydial antigen was detected in aborted equine placental tissue using immunohistochemistry it was seen only in the chorionic epithelial cells, but not in other parts of the fetal membranes nor in any of the fetal tissues. In conclusion, chlamydial infection of the genital tract should be considered a possible factor in equine reproductive disorders.     

Survey of Feeding Practices, Supplement Use, and Knowledge of Equine Nutrition among a Subpopulation of Horse Owners in New England

Nutrition is a critical component of equine health. Horse owners' knowledge of nutrition is likely to affect their feeding practices. The aim of this study was to survey feeding practices, dietary supplement use, and knowledge about equine nutrition in New England by surveying a subpopulation of horse owners (67/337 or 19.8%) who brought their horses to the Large Animal Hospital at the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University between July and September 2008. All owners reported feeding hay, with the majority feeding grass or timothy hay. Most owners (96%) reported feeding a concentrate in addition to hay. Approximately 84% of owners reported including at least one dietary supplement in their horse's daily feeding. The most commonly used supplements were chondroprotectives, electrolytes, and multivitamins. Survey questions designed to assess the owner's knowledge of nutrition suggested that many owners may not have a basic understanding of principles of equine nutrition; less than 50% knew the daily water and hay requirements for a horse, and 69% lacked knowledge about the proper use of concentrates in a diet. Most of the surveyed owners consulted multiple sources of information concerning equine nutrition, including veterinarians (n = 36), trainers (n = 27), feed stores (n = 10), and the internet (n = 7). Although the major source of information was the veterinarian, it appears that the communication between horse owners and their veterinarian about optimal feeding practices could be enhanced. This survey demonstrated areas in the veterinarian–client dialog that need to be addressed when evaluating the health and well-being of the horse.     

Evaluation of equine breeding farm characteristics as risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals

OBJECTIVE: To identify farm characteristics as risk factors for the development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. DESIGN: Prospective matched case-control study. ANIMALS: 2,764 foals on 64 equine breeding farms with 9,991 horses. PROCEDURE: During 1997, participating veterinarians completed paired data collection forms, 1 for a farm with > or = 1 foal with R equi pneumonia and 1 for an unaffected control farm. Matched data were compared by use of conditional logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Farm characteristics found in bivariate analyses to be associated with increased risk for pneumonia caused by R equi in foals included > 200 farm acres, > or = 60 acres used in the husbandry of horses, > 160 horses, > or = 10 mares housed permanently on the farm (resident mares), > 17 foals, > 0.25 foals/acre, and the presence of transient mares (mares brought temporarily to the farm for breeding or foaling) and their foals. Affected farms were significantly more likely to be > 200 acres in size and have > or = 10 resident dam-foal pairs, whereas control farms were significantly more likely to have > or = 75% of their dam-foal pairs housed permanently on the farm. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Breeding farms with large acreage, a large number of mares and foals, high foal density, and a population of transient mares and foals are at high risk for foals developing pneumonia caused by R equi.     

Distribution of Salmonella in Humans,Production Animal Operations and a Watershed in a FoodNet Canada Sentinel Site

Salmonella is an important human pathogen, and production animals as well as water are known potential sources. This study helped provide insight into the epidemiology of Salmonella by comparing Salmonella strains found in humans to those detected in production animals and water in the same geographic area and time frame. Salmonella was found in 55% of broiler, 30% of swine, 13% of dairy, and 10% of beef manure samples and 23% of water samples. At the farm level, Salmonella was found on 93% of broiler, 81% of swine, 32% of beef and 30% of dairy farms. Salmonella strains of importance to public health were found in all sources tested; however, they appeared to be more common in the broilers. A number of the farms in this study were mixed farms, in that they had more than one production animal species on the farm. At both the sample and farm levels, beef‐only farms had a significantly lower Salmonella prevalence (5% and 7%, respectively) than beef farms with additional production animal species (e.g. poultry) (12% and 42%, respectively) (P ≤ 0.05). Additionally, a number of mixed farms had more than one commodity sampled for this study and similar Salmonella strains by phage type and PFGE were found in the poultry and the other sampled commodity on the farm. This information can help inform the evidence base needed to help target interventions and modify best practices in production agriculture.     

Evaluation of the risk of transmission of Trichinella in pork production systems in Argentina

Recently, there has been interest in programs that certify pork production practices that minimize the risk of exposure of pigs to Trichinella spiralis. Certification might be useful for reducing the risk of human trichinellosis from pork in Argentina, but more information is needed on pig production practices and sources of Trichinella infection in Argentinian pigs. In this study, 21 pig farms were assessed for Trichinella infection including some farms using total and partial confinement management, and others with pigs raised exclusively outdoors. A total of 3224 muscle samples were collected from pigs raised on these farms and tested to determine the presence of T. spiralis larvae by artificial digestion. Serum samples from the same 3224 pigs were tested for antibodies to T. spiralis by ELISA. For each farm, a questionnaire was completed summarizing information about management factors and this information was used to assess risk factors for exposure of T. spiralis. Based on the results, pigs raised outdoors were more likely to be infected than pigs raised in total or partial confinement (p ≤ 0.05). Pigs fed waste products containing meat were 12.5 times more likely to be infected than pigs not fed waste containing meat (p < 0.01). The role played by rats in transmission of Trichinella is unclear; however, on farms with evidence of wild animals and access of pigs to wildlife carcasses, the prevalence of Trichinella infection was significantly higher. All pigs raised under good hygienic and sanitary conditions were negative for Trichinella infection by both artificial digestion and ELISA.     

A survey of manure management on pig farms in Northern Vietnam

Animal manure can provide nutrients for crop and fish production and input for biogas production but, if managed inappropriately, can also have a negative impact on the environment. The objective of this survey was to provide information about pig production and manure management practices in the Northern part of Vietnam in order to identify and prioritize research needs for future improvements in pig manure management. A survey was conducted by in-depth interviews on 54 pig farms in two Northern Vietnamese provinces, Thai Binh and Bac Giang. In addition to the survey, also key informant responses were obtained in the two provinces to help identify problems with existing manure management. The survey showed that large-scale pig producers (> 100 fatteners or 20 sows) had more pigs per hectare than medium-scale (19–99 fatteners, 5–19 sows) or small-scale (< 19 fatteners, < 5 sows) producers. Biogas was produced from 43% of the total manure produced on all surveyed farms, and was used for cooking. The proportion of total manure applied to crops was only 5% in Thai Binh and 35% in Bac Giang. Large-scale producers tended to operate smaller fishponds, and medium-scale farms operated larger ones. The farmers were of the opinion that fish in ponds fertilized with pig manure grew significantly faster than did fish in ponds supplied with other feed or types of fertilizer. Twenty percent of pig producers reported that they raised pigs just to provide manure to feed their pond fish. A large proportion (19%) of the total manure produced was discharged into public sewage systems, rivers and lakes. Of the 54 householders interviewed, 46 believed that animal manure caused serious damage to the environment. Farmers interviewed had little or no expertise in handling liquid manure, composting solid manure, or reducing contamination by means of microbial reduction of pollutants during manure management. In general, specialized pig production is seen as a commercial operation, while manure management remains non-commercial. The survey implied that more information to farmers, as well as stronger regulation of manure management, is needed in Vietnam.     

Occurrence of Salmonella,Campylobacter, Yersinia enterocolitica,Escherichia coli O157 and Listeria monocytogenes in Swine

The objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of major bacterial foodborne pathogens in swine. In total, 359 samples from manure storage tanks (91) and fresh pooled faeces (268) obtained from finisher (110), sows (78) and weanlings (80) were collected and tested. Campylobacter, Salmonella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Escherichia coli O157 and Listeria monocytogenes were isolated from 36.5%, 31.5%, 5.8%, 3.3% and 3.3% of samples respectively. All E. coli O157 isolates found on 10 farms were tested but none was determined to be E. coli O157:H7. Salmonella and Campylobacter were more likely to be detected from stored manure rather than from fresh faecal samples. Yersinia enterocolitica tended to be detected more commonly from fresh samples than from manure pits. Listeria monocytogenes was not recovered from manure pits or from sow faecal samples and only infrequently found in the faeces of weanling pigs and finisher pigs. The proportion of positive samples showed a seasonal change. Salmonella was twice as likely not be recovered in winter, whereas the chance of culturing Campylobacter was higher in winter. The 113 Salmonella isolates recovered on 24 farms and the four most common serovars were Salmonella Typhimurium var. Copenhagen (31.0%), Salmonella Derby (12.4%), S. Typhimurium (10.6%) and Salmonella Agona (10.6%). Of 131 Campylobacter isolates recovered on 21 farms, 118 isolates were Campylobacter coli and 13 isolates could not be speciated. Fifteen of 21 Y. enterocolitica isolates found on 15 farms were detected in finisher pigs. The sero/biogroups of Y. enterocolitica were O3/biotype 4 (16 isolates), O6,30/biotype 1A (three isolates), O5/biotype 1A (one isolate) and O8/biotype 1B (one isolate). These findings provide baseline information on the distribution of important zoonotic pathogens in swine and indicate that pigs should be considered as a possible source of foodborne diseases in humans.