Use of nootkatone as a senescence indicator for Rouge La Toma Cv. grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macf.)

The objective of this research was to study the usefulness of nootkatone as a senescence indicator for Rouge La Toma cv. grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macf.), simulating different treatments that included the normal postharvest handling of citrus fruits: temperature conditioning, cold storage, shipment periods to overseas markets such as Japan and the U.S., marketing conditions, and storage at nonchilling temperature (control treatments). The highest nootkatone levels, determined by GLC-MS analyses, were detected in fruits subjected to control treatments. No significant differences were observed in nootkatone levels between treatments either with or without temperature conditioning prior to the start of the cold storage. Levels of nootkatone increased throughout time for all assayed treatments. The linear regressions of nootkatone levels showed correlation coefficients of 0.80 and 0.83 with storage time (29 and 42 days, respectively). Therefore, nootkatone appears to be a good indicator of senescence for Rouge La Toma grapefruit.     

钙处理对葡萄柚果实细胞壁物质代谢及其相关基因表达的影响

【目的】研究采前、 采后钙处理对葡萄柚果实细胞壁组分、 细胞壁降解酶活性变化及其相关基因表达的影响,可为了解钙与果实细胞壁物质代谢之间的关系,揭示钙对果实软化的作用机理,为调控葡萄柚果实膳食纤维含量,提高果实质地品质提供理论依据。【方法】试验于2011年2月至11月在云南省玉溪市葡萄柚果园进行,供试品种为‘里约红’葡萄柚,该品种于2005年嫁接于当地砧木,株行距为3 m×3 m。试验由采前和采后钙处理两部分组成。采前钙处理在幼果初期、 幼果末期、 膨大初期、 膨大末期、 转色期,叶面喷施2% CaCl2; 采后钙处理在果实成熟采后浸于2% CaCl2溶液5 min, 室温贮藏。之后每15天取样一次,每次取10个果实,测定葡萄柚果肉细胞壁组分、 细胞壁降解酶活性及其基因表达量。【结果】随葡萄柚果实后熟软化,紧密结合型果胶(共价结合型果胶)解聚为松散结合型果胶(水溶性果胶、 离子结合型果胶),紧密结合型半纤维素(24% KOH可溶性半纤维素)解聚使其含量下降,而松散结合型半纤维素含量增加(4%KOH可溶性半纤维素)。果实PG、 PME、 Cx、 α-L-Af和β-Gal酶活性及其基因表达量均随果实软化呈不同程度增加。PME活性在果实采收后表现出较高含量,而PG活性在果实贮藏前期急剧增加,其酶基因的表达量与酶活性变化趋势基本一致。Cx、 α-L-Af和β-Gal活性在贮藏中、 后期上升较快,相关酶基因的表达量亦明显增加。钙处理显著地降低果实细胞壁降解酶活性和基因表达水平,其中采后钙处理对α-L-Af和β-Gal活性和基因表达在贮藏中、 后期的调控作用较显著,酶活性和基因表达均维持在较低水平。【结论】外源钙处理降低细胞壁降解酶活性及其基因表达,抑制了细胞壁物质的解聚,采后钙处理对细胞壁物质代谢的调控效果优于采前钙处理。外源钙处理抑制了细胞壁降解酶基因表达水平,降低了细胞壁降解酶活性,减缓了果胶、 半纤维素的解聚,从而达到调控果实膳食纤维含量、 维持果实质地品质、 延长果实货架期寿命的目的。     

Bioactive compounds of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Cv. Rio Red) respond differently to postharvest irradiation, storage, and freeze drying

In the present study, the effect of irradiation, storage, and freeze drying on grapefruit bioactive compounds was investigated. Grapefruits were exposed to one of two irradiation doses: 0 (control) or 300 Gy (137Cs, a proposed treatment against fruit flies) and then stored for up to 6 days. At the last storage time point (6 days after harvest), grapefruit pulp from control and irradiated fruits was freeze-dried. Bioactive compounds were extracted from Rio Red grapefruit pulp and analyzed with reverse phase liquid chromatography while volatile compounds were analyzed using gas chromatography. Freeze-dried pulp from irradiated fruits had a higher (P < or = 0.05) flavonoid content (naringin and narirutin) as compared to the freeze-dried pulp from the control fruits. Freeze-drying treatment reduced (P < or = 0.05) the lycopene content, but the reduction (P < or = 0.05) in beta-carotene content occurred only in the control fruit. Reduction in d-limonene and myrcene was observed in the irradiated fruits at 6 days after harvest and in the freeze-dried samples. These results warrant testing of the effect of postharvest treatments and processing on bioactive compounds in functional systems as they have varied effects on different bioactive compounds of grapefruit.     

Ultraviolet C irradiation at 0.5 kJ.m(-)(2) reduces decay without causing damage or affecting postharvest quality of star ruby grapefruit (C. paradisi Macf.)

Star Ruby grapefruit [Citrus paradisi (Macf.)] were harvested in November, February, and May, treated with ultraviolet C (UV-C) light at 0.5, 1.5, or 3.0 kJ.m(-)(2), and then stored at 7 degrees C and 90-95% relative humidity (RH) for 4 weeks with 1 additional week at 20 degrees C and approximately 80% RH. Untreated fruits were used as control. UV-C irradiation at 0.5 kJ.m(-)(2) effectively reduced decay development as compared to nontreated fruit without causing damage. Irradiation at dosages >0.5 kJ.m(-)(2) did not further improve decay control and caused rind browning and necrotic peel, the extent of damage depending on treatment dosage and harvest date. The percentage of damaged fruit after irradiation at the higher UV-C dosages was significantly higher in fruit harvested in November; differences between fruits harvested in February and May were negligible. After UV-C irradiation, the phytoalexins scoparone and scopoletin accumulated in flavedo tissue, their amounts depending on harvest date and UV-C dosage. Both phytoalexins showed similar accumulation patterns, although the concentrations of scoparone were much lower than those of scopoletin. Phytoalexin levels increased in most samples as the treatment dosage increased. No detectable levels of scoparone and scopoletin could be found in nonirradiated fruit. The influence of UV-C treatments on soluble solids concentration and titratable acidity of juice was negligible.     

Evaluation of key aroma compounds in hand-squeezed grapefruit juice (Citrus paradisi Macfayden) by quantitation and flavor reconstitution experiments

Twenty-five odor-active compounds were quantified in the fresh, hand-squeezed juice of White Marsh seedless grapefruits using stable isotope dilution assays. By calculation of the odor activity values of the odorants (ratio of their concentrations in the juice to their odor thresholds in water) it was shown that the fruity esters ethyl 2-methylpropanoate, ethyl butanoate, and (S)-ethyl 2-methylbutanoate, and the fruity, sweet winelactone, as well as the grassy smelling (Z)-hex-3-enal, and trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-dec-2-enal with metallic odor, were among the most potent odorants of the fresh grapefruit juice. The typical sulfurous, grapefruit-like odor quality was mainly due to the catty, blackcurrant-like 4-mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-one and the grapefruit-like smelling 1-p-menthene-8-thiol. These findings were confirmed by reconstitution experiments to simulate the aroma of the fresh grapefruit juice.     

Volatile constituents of redblush grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) and pummelo (Citrus grandis) peel essential oils from Kenya

The volatile constituents of cold-pressed peel essential oils of redblush grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen forma Redblush) and pummelo (Citrus grandis Osbeck) from the same locality in Kenya were determined by GC and GC-MS. A total of 67 and 52 compounds, amounting to 97.9 and 98.8% of the two oils, respectively, were identified. Monoterpene hydrocarbons constituted 93.3 and 97.5% in the oils, respectively, with limonene (91.1 and 94.8%), alpha-terpinene (1.3 and 1.8%), and alpha-pinene (0.5%) as the main compounds. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons constituted 0.4% in each oil. The notable compounds were beta-caryophyllene, alpha-cubebene, and (E,E)-alpha-farnesene. Oxygenated compounds constituted 4.2 and 2.0% of the redblush grapefruit and pummelo oils, respectively, out of which carbonyl compounds (2.0 and 1.3%), alcohols (1.4 and 0.3%), and esters (0.7 and 0.4%) were the major groups. Heptyl acetate, octanal, decanal, citronellal, and (Z)-carvone were the main constituents (0.1-0.5%). Perillene, (E)-carveol, and perillyl acetate occurred in the redblush grapefruit but were absent from the pummelo oil. Nootkatone, alpha- and beta-sinensal, methyl-N-methylanthranilate, and (Z,E)-farnesol were prominent in both oils.     

Antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds of tea seed (Camellia oleifera Abel.) oil

The oil of tea seed (Camellia oleifera Abel.) is used extensively in China as cooking oil. The objectives of this study were to investigate the antioxidant activity of tea seed oil and its active compounds. Of the five solvent extracts, methanol extract of tea seed oil exhibited the highest yield and the strongest antioxidant activity as determined by DPPH scavenging activity and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). Two peaks separated from the methanol extract by HPLC contributed the most significant antioxidant activity. These two peaks were further identified as sesamin and a novel compound: 2,5-bis-benzo[1,3]dioxol-5-yl-tetrahydro-furo [3,4-d][1,3]dioxine (named compound B) by UV absorption and characterized by MS, IR, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR techniques. Sesamin and compound B decreased H2O2-mediated formation of reactive oxygen species in red blood cells (RBCs), inhibited RBCs hemolysis induced by AAPH, and increased the lag time of conjugated dienes formation in human low-density lipoprotein. The results indicate that both compounds isolated from tea seed oil exhibit remarkable antioxidant activity. Apart from the traditional pharmacological effects of Camellia oleifera, the oil of tea seed may also act as a prophylactic agent to prevent free radical related diseases.     

Characterization of the most odor-active volatiles in fresh, hand-squeezed juice of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfayden)

By application of the aroma extract dilution analysis on an extract prepared from fresh grapefruit juice, 37 odor-active compounds were detected in the flavor dilution (FD) factor range of 4-256 and subsequently identified. Among them the highest odor activities (FD factors) were determined for ethyl butanoate, p-1-menthene-8-thiol, (Z)-3-hexenal, 4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal, 4-mercapto-4-methylpentane-2-one, 1-heptene-3-one, and wine lactone. Besides the 5 last mentioned compounds, a total of 13 further odorants were identified for the first time as flavor constituents of grapefruit. The data confirmed results of the literature on the significant contribution of 1-p-menthene-8-thiol in grapefruit aroma but clearly showed that a certain number of further odorants are necessary to elicit the typical grapefruit flavor.     

Accumulation of bioactive compounds during growth and development of mango ginger (Curcuma amada Roxb.) rhizomes

Accumulation of bioactive compounds and storage components during developmental stages of mango ginger ( Curcuma amada Roxb.) rhizome was investigated from 60 to 240 days, as a function of physiological maturity. Four distinct developmental phases were defined, namely, vegetative phase (up to 60 days from planting), initiation and development phase (60-150 days), maturation phase (150-180 days), and senescence phase (180 days). Difurocumenonol, a bioactive terpenoid compound and phenolics were identified as biomarkers, to determine the optimum physiological maturity to harvest mango ginger rhizome. Accumulation of phenolics was observed in newly initiated rhizomes (after 60 days from planting). The phenolic content was high in mango ginger pulp compared to its juice. Newly initiated rhizome contained no difurocumenonol, and it was observed after 120 days after planting. Peak accumulation of phenolics, difurocumenonol, and total protein were noticed in 180 day old rhizome. Accordingly, the abundance of these components on 180 days was set as an optimum maturity standard for harvest of mango ginger rhizome, compared with a conventional harvest period that ranges from 200 to 240 days.     

Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of extracts from ultrasonic treatment of Satsuma Mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc.) peels

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was used to extract phenolic compounds from Satsuma mandarin ( Citrus unshiu Marc.) peels (SMP), and maceration extraction (ME) was used as a control. The effects of ultrasonic time (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min), temperature (15, 30, and 40 degrees C), and ultrasonic power (3.2, 8, 30, and 56 W) on phenolic compounds were investigated. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with a photodiode array (PDA) detector was used for the analysis of phenolic acids after alkaline hydrolysis (bound phenolic acids) and flavanone glycosides. The contents of seven phenolic acids (caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and vanillic acid) and two flavanone glycosides (narirutin and hesperidin) in extracts obtained by ultrasonic treatment were significantly higher than in extracts obtained by the maceration method. Moreover, the contents of extracts increased as both treatment time and temperature increased. Ultrasonic power had a positive effect on the contents of extracts. However, the phenolic acids may be degraded by ultrasound at higher temperature for a long time. For example, after ultrasonic treatment at 40 degrees C for 20 min, the contents of caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid decreased by 48.90, 44.20, 48.23, and 35.33%, respectively. The interaction of ultrasonic parameters probably has a complex effect on the extracts. A linear relationship was observed between Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) values and total phenolic contents (TPC); the correlation coefficient, R(2), is 0.8288 at 15 degrees C, 0.7706 at 30 degrees C, and 0.8626 at 40 degrees C, respectively. The data indicated that SMPs were rich sources of antioxidants. Furthermore, UAE techniques should be carefully used to enhance the yields of phenolic acids from SMPs.     

Functionality of bioactive compounds in Brazilian strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) cultivars: evaluation of hyperglycemia and hypertension potential using in vitro models

Fruits of seven fully ripened strawberry cultivars grown in Brazil (Dover, Camp Dover, Camarosa, Sweet Charlie, Toyonoka, Oso Grande, and Piedade) were evaluated for total phenolics, antioxidant activity based on DPPH radical scavenging assay, and functionality such as inhibition of alpha-amylase, alpha-glucosidase, and angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) relevant for potentially managing hyperglycemia and hypertension. The total phenolics content ranged from 966 to 1571 microg of gallic acid/g of fruit fresh weight for Toyonoka and Dover, respectively. No correlation was found between total phenolics and antioxidant activity. The major phenolic compounds in aqueous extracts of strawberries were ellagic acid, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid. Strawberries had high alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity. However, alpha-amylase inhibitory activity was very low in all cultivars. This suggested that strawberries could be considered as a potential dietary source with anti-hyperglycemic potential. The evaluated cultivars had no significant ACE inhibitory activity, reflecting low anti-hypertensive potential.     

Leaf volatile compounds of seven citrus somatic tetraploid hybrids sharing willow leaf mandarin (Citrus deliciosa Ten.) as their common parent

Volatile compounds were extracted by a pentane/ether (1:1) mixture from the leaves of seven citrus somatic tetraploid hybrids sharing mandarin as their common parent and having lime, Eurêka lemon, lac lemon, sweet orange, grapefruit, kumquat, or poncirus as the other parent. Extracts were examined by GC-MS and compared with those of their respective parents. All hybrids were like their mandarin parent, and unlike their nonmandarin parents, in being unable to synthesize monoterpene aldehydes and alcohols. The hybrids did retain the ability, although strongly reduced, of their nonmandarin parents to synthesize sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, alcohols, and aldehydes. These results suggest that complex forms of dominance in the mandarin genome determine the biosynthesis pathways of volatile compounds in tetraploid hybrids. A down-regulation of the biosynthesis of methyl N-methylanthranilate, a mandarin-specific compound, originates from the genomes of the nonmandarin parents. Statistical analyses showed that all of the hybrids were similar to their common mandarin parent in the relative composition of their volatile compounds.     

Effects of microwave cooking conditions on bioactive compounds present in broccoli inflorescences

Cooking as a domestic processing method has a great impact on food nutrients. Most Brassica (Brassicaceae, Cruciferae) vegetables are mainly consumed after being cooked, and cooking considerably affects their health-promoting compounds (specifically, glucosinolates, phenolic compunds, minerals, and vitamin C studied here). The microwave cooking process presents controversial results in the literature due to the different conditions that are employed (time, power, and added water). Therefore, the aim of this work was to study the influence of these conditions during microwave cooking on the human bioactive compounds of broccoli. The results show a general decrease in the levels of all the studied compounds except for mineral nutrients which were stable under all cooking conditions. Vitamin C showed the greatest losses mainly because of degradation and leaching, whereas losses for phenolic compounds and glucosinolates were mainly due to leaching into water. In general, the longest microwave cooking time and the higher volume of cooking water should be avoided to minimize losses of nutrients.     

Changes in the concentrations of bioactive compounds in plantain leaves

The plantain is used in herbal medicines and for pasturage. Two cultivars of plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.), Grasslands Lancelot and Ceres Tonic, were sown in spring. Changes in catalpol, aucubin, and acteoside concentrations in the leaves during the growing season and by drying after harvesting were quantitatively determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The concentration of catalpol was relatively low, fluctuating between 1 and 2% of dry matter during the growing season, and there was no clear-cut seasonal change. From spring to midfall, the aucubin concentration increased from 2.1 to 4.8% in Grasslands Lancelot and from 1.0 to 2.7% in Ceres Tonic. These increases were gradual over the season, except for during midsummer, when aucubin concentrations were relatively constant. The acteoside concentration increased from 3.4 to 7.1% in Grasslands Lancelot and from 1.5 to 4.1% in Ceres Tonic over the course of the growing season, although in the summer it declined steadily to lows of 2.5% in Grasslands Lancelot and 1.9% in Ceres Tonic. Our data suggested that midfall was the appropriate time for harvesting plantain for medicinal use. The concentrations of the bioactive compounds steadily decreased in the initial stages of drying both under natural climatic conditions and at 60 degrees C. The development of processing methods to minimize the loss of bioactive compounds is imperative.     

Effect of the rootstock and interstock grafted in lemon tree (Citrus limon (L.) Burm.) on the flavonoid content of lemon juice

The grafting of the rootstock with the lemon tree is an agronomical technique used to improve production and/or quality of the fruit. The interstock has been used with different fruit trees to modulate the tree size, fruit production and quality, and the aging of the tree. The lemon trees grafted with interstocks increase their longevity, lemon production and quality; interstocks are also used to decrease the thickness of the trunk at the grafting point. This enlarging of the trunk provokes a decrease of the sap flow. In our study, "Verna" lemon trees were grafted with interstock between the rootstock and the lemon tree to follow the flavonoid content of the lemon juice. The lemon juice was obtained from the lemons collected of the grafted lemon trees. Two types of rootstocks were used: Citrus aurantium L. and Citrus macrophylla L. Seven interstocks from five cultivars of orange tree, one cultivar of lime tree, and one cultivar of tangerine tree were used. "Verna" lemon trees were also grafted directly to the rootstock. The rootstock was more important agronomic factor than the interstock on the total flavonoid content of lemon juice. The interstock grafting had only a small influence on the flavonoid content of the lemon juice, and it modulated the individual flavonoid content. Citrus aurantium L. rootstock and "Berna" and "Washington Navel" interstocks were the most appropriate to graft in the lemon tree. This interstock grafting technique does not increase the flavonoid content of the lemon juice. Regarding the individual flavonoids, the 6,8-di-C-glucosyl diosmetin was the most affected flavonoid by the type of rootstock used. The interstock used is able to alter the individual quantitative flavonoid order of eriocitrin, diosmin, and hesperidin. In addition, the HPLC-ESI/MS(n) analyses provided the identification of two new flavonoids in the lemon juice: Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside-7-O-glucoside and chrysoeriol 6,8-di-C-glucoside (stellarin-2). The occurrence of apigenin 6,8-di-C-glucoside (vicenin-2), eriodictyol 7-O-rutinoside, 6,8-di-C-glucosyl diosmetin, hesperetin 7-O-rutinoside, homoeriodictyol 7-O-rutinoside and diosmetin 7-O-rutinoside was also confirmed in lemon juice by this technique.     

不同供磷水平对温州蜜柑叶片光合作用的影响

用营养液培养的方法 ,研究了不同供磷水平对温州蜜柑叶片光合作用的影响。结果表明 ,在缺磷培养条件下 ,叶片中无机磷含量 (Pi)、Rubisco活性、RuBP再生速率、表观量子效率 (AQY)、光化学效率 (Fv/Fm)及电子传递速率 (ETR)下降 ,光呼吸速率 (Pr)与净光合速率 (Pn)之比升高 ,光系统Ⅱ反应中心可逆失活 ,但对叶片叶绿素含量影响不显著。给缺磷培养的植株叶片喂KH2PO4,Pn、Rubisco活性、RuBP再生速率、光化学效率、光系统Ⅱ反应中心的活性及Pr/Pn比值可得到迅速恢复。在营养液磷浓度过高条件下 ,叶片中的Pi升高 ,Pn、Rubisco活性及RuBP再生速率下降 ,对叶绿素含量、Pr、AQY、叶绿素荧光参数及ETR影响不大     

红壤水分条件对柑橘叶片质膜透性以及活性氧代谢和保护酶活性的影响

通过盆栽柑橘控制盆内红壤不同含水量处理,研究了不同红壤水分条件对柑橘叶片质膜透性以及活性氧代谢和保护酶活性的影响.结果表明,柑橘叶片相对电导率在红壤相对含水量75% 处理时最低,并与红壤相对含水量呈显著负相关(R2 = 0.8236*,n=50);柑橘叶片丙二醛(MDA)含量随土壤水分含量的减少而显著增加,并与红壤相对含水量呈显著负相关(R2 = 0.9051*,n=50).柑橘叶片超氧阴离子自由基(O2.-)生成速率与过氧化氢(H2O2)含量在不同红壤水分条件下具有相近的变化曲线,在红壤相对含水量60% 的处理下达最大值后,随红壤水分减少或增加均呈下降趋势;O2.-、H2O2并不是引起柑橘在红壤水分亏缺或盈余胁迫状况下氧化伤害的单一原因.随着红壤含水量的变化,柑橘叶片抗氧化系统处于动态的平衡中,柑橘叶片超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)酶活性在红壤干旱条件下都保持了较高的活性,但过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性随土壤水分减少却显著降低.     

Effect of extraction method on the concentrations of selected bioactive compounds in mandarin juice

A mandarin-type citrus fruit, ponkan (Citrus reticulata), was processed by in-line, chopper pulper, and hand-press extractions to investigate the effect of extraction method on the concentrations of bioactive compounds in processed juice. Concentrations of polymethoxylated flavones (tangeretin, nobiletin, and sinensetin) and beta-cryptoxanthin in juice, and inhibitory activities against arachidonate cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenases of the juice extract were analyzed. The juice processed by hand-press extraction contained the largest amounts of nobiletin (3.56 mg/100 mL), tangeretin (4.10 mg/100 mL), and sinensetin (0.13 mg/100 mL). Concentrations of beta-cryptoxanthin were 0.66, 0.59, 0.55, and 0.50 mg/100 mL in chopper pulper, in-line (5/64 in.), in-line (8/64 in.) and hand-press juices, respectively. Both extracts of in-line juices showed greater inhibitory activity toward platelet 12-lipoxygenase than the others. The inhibitory effect of hand-press juice extract on platelet cyclooxygenase activity was remarkable among juice extracts. All juice extracts effectively inhibited polymorphonuclear 5-lipoxygenase activity at nearly the same rate.