Kinetics of starch digestion and functional properties of twin-screw extruded sorghum

The time-course of starch digestion in twin-screw extruded milled sorghum grain was investigated using an in-vitro procedure based on glucometry. The sorghum grains were hammer-milled, and extruded at three levels each of moisture and screw speed. Irrespective of the extrusion conditions, extruded and non-extruded milled sorghum grain exhibited monophasic digestograms, and the modified first-order kinetic and Peleg models adequately described the digestograms. Extrusion increased the rate of digestion by about ten times compared with non-extrudates. Starch gelatinisation varied in the extrudates, and microscopy revealed a mixture of raw, gelatinised and destructured starch and protein components in the extrudates. Starch digestion parameters significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with extruder response and various functional properties of the extrudates. Extrusion conditions for maximum starch gelatinisation in milled sorghum grain for fastest digestion as an efficient animal feed were interpolated, as well as the conditions for directly-expanded extrudates with potential for human food, where minimum starch digestion is desired.     

Temperatures and ethanol effects on the properties of extruded modified starch

Temperature and blowing agent are major factors influencing the properties of extruded foam materials. This study was conducted to determine the influence of temperature and alcohol content on selected properties and molecular weight of acetylated starch foam. Starch acetate, with degree of substitution of three, was prepared from 70% amylose corn starch and extruded with either 16 or 18% (db) ethanol in a single screw extruder at either 120 or 160°C. Unit and solid densities, specific mechanical energy, compressibility, spring index, water absorption and water solubility indices, glass transition temperature, molecular degradation and degree of substitution (DS) of the starch were measured. The samples extruded at 120°C had lower spring indices and water absorption indices (WAI), but higher compressibility and unit density than acetylated starch extruded at 160°C. The samples extruded with 16% ethanol content on a dry basis had lower spring indices and higher WSI than samples extruded with 18% alcohol. The extruded samples had lower solid density, WSI and WAI as compared to non-extruded acetylated starch. A slight decrease in the average molecular weight was recorded as a result of the extrusion processing. The samples extruded at 160°C had high spring indices and low unit densities and thus were more suitable for use as a loose-fill packaging material.     

Effect of Grain Structure and Cooking on Sorghum and Maize in vitro Protein Digestibility

Uncooked and cooked sorghum showed improvement in in vitro protein digestibility as the structural complexity of the sample reduced from whole grain flour through endosperm flour to protein body-enriched samples. This was not the case for maize. Cooking reduced protein digestibility of sorghum but not maize. Treating cooked sorghum and maize whole grain and endosperm flours with alpha -amylase to reduce sample complexity before in vitro pepsin digestion slightly improved protein digestibility. The reduction in sorghum protein digestibility on cooking was not related to the total polyphenol content of samples. Pericarp components, germ, endosperm cell walls, and gelatinised starch were identified as possible factors limiting sorghum protein digestibility. Electrophoresis of uncooked and cooked protein-body-enriched samples of sorghum and maize, and prolamin fractions of sorghum under non-reducing conditions showed oligomeric proteins with molecular weights (M_r) 45, 66 and >66 kDa and monomeric kafirins and zeins. Protein-body-enriched samples of sorghum had more 45–50 kDa oligomers than those of maize. In cooked sorghum, some of these were resistant to reduction. Pepsin-indigestible residues from protein-body-enriched samples consisted mainly of α-zein (uncooked and cooked maize) or α-kafirin (uncooked sorghum), whilst cooked sorghum had in addition, β- and γ-kafirin and reduction-resistant 45–50 kDa oligomers. Cooking appears to lead to formation of disulphide-bonded oligomeric proteins that occurs to a greater extent in sorghum than in maize. This may explain the poorer protein digestibility of cooked sorghum.     

Effect of extrusion cooking on chemical structure,morphology, crystallinity and thermal properties of sorghum flour extrudates

The effect of feed moisture content (10, 14 and 18%) and die temperature (110 and 160 °C) on functional properties, specific mechanical energy (SME), morphology, thermal properties, X-ray diffraction pattern (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and amylose-lipid complex formation of extruded sorghum flour was investigated. Results showed that the extrusion cooking significantly changed the functional properties of extruded sorghum flour. Increasing feed moisture increased the peak gelatinization temperature (T_p), the degree of gelatinization (%) and starch crystallinity (%) while it decreased the gelatinization temperature ranges (T_c - T₀), starch gelatinization enthalpy (ΔH_G) and amylose-lipid complex (%) formation. With increasing die temperature, the degree of gelatinization and amylose-lipid complex formation increased and the starch T_p, T_c-T₀, ΔH_G and crystallinity decreased. The FTIR spectra also showed that the extrusion cooking did not create new functional groups or eliminate them in sorghum protein, whereas the sorghum extrudate protein had random coil conformation.     

Effect of a gibberellin-biosynthesis inhibitor treatment on the physicochemical properties of sorghum starch

Inhibition of plant growth by Trinexapac-ethyl, TE, a gibberellin-biosynthesis inhibitor, can produce a shorter stemmed plant, requiring less nutrients and water to grow, while maintaining grain yield. Although TE and other plant growth regulators are commonly used in grain crops, their effects on starch biosynthesis in the grains have not been systematically examined. The changes in the structural and functional properties of starch in grains harvested from TE-treated sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) were examined, and the results compared with those from the untreated controls. TE treatment had little or no effects on the molecular structures of starch, starch granule morphology, and starch and amylose contents, but increased the protein content of the grains significantly. Consistent with the lack of change in the molecular structure, there were no significant effects on the thermal properties of the starch. The pasting properties of TE-treated sorghum flours, however, showed lower peak viscosity, trough, and final viscosity, which were attributed to their higher protein contents. The TE treatment thus does not have an appreciable effect on the biosynthesis of starch during grain development in sorghum.     

Conversion into bioethanol of insect (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky), mold (Aspergillus flavus Link) and sprout-damaged maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)

The bioconversion into ethanol of insect (Sitophilus zeamais), mold (Aspergillus flavus) and sprout-damaged maize and sorghum was investigated. Kernel test weight losses due to insect damage in maize were almost twice compared to sorghum (18.6 vs. 10.7%). All damaged kernels lost some of the starch and increased soluble sugars, ash and crude fiber. The mold-damaged sorghum contained approximately five times more FAN compared to the control. The sprout-damaged kernels contained the highest amounts of reducing sugars prior (11 g/L) to and at the end (146.5 g/L) of liquefaction with α-amylase. Ethanol yields based on the already damaged grain indicated that sprout-damaged kernels yielded similar amounts compared to sound kernels (381.1 vs. 382.6 L/ton and 376.6 vs. 374.8 L/ton of sorghum or maize respectively). The insect-damaged maize and sorghum have reduced ethanol yields compared with the controls (29 and 23% respectively), and this negative result was mainly due to dry matter losses during the inadequate storage. Despite differences in ethanol yield, all treatments have similar conversion efficiencies (76.1–89.9%) indicating the robustness of yeast facing biotic-damaged feedstocks. This research demonstrates that the use of already damaged insect, mold or sprouted kernels is feasible and a good alternative for biorefineries.     

Small-scale mashing procedure for predicting ethanol yield of sorghum grain

A small-scale mashing (SSM) procedure requiring only 300 mg of samples was investigated as a possible method of predicting ethanol yield of sorghum grain. The initial SSM procedure, which was conducted similarly to the mashing step in a traditional fermentation test, hydrolyzed just 38.5–47.2% of total sorghum starch to glucose. The initial procedure was simplified to contain only one liquefaction step, which did not influence subsequent saccharification. Thereafter, parameters such as temperature, pH, enzyme dosage, and saccharification time were optimized. Results showed that 91.2–97.5% of the total starch in 18 sorghum hybrids had been hydrolyzed to glucose using the following conditions: liquefaction at 86 °C for 90 min, 20 μL of α-amylase per 30 g of sample; pH adjustment by adding 50 μL of 2 M acetate buffer at pH 4.2 to each microtube; saccharification at 68 °C for 90 min, 200 μL of amyloglucosidase per 30 g of sample. There were strong linear correlations between completely hydrolyzed starch (CHS) from SSM and ethanol yields from both traditional (R² = 0.86) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF, R² = 0.93) procedures. CHS was a better indicator for predicting ethanol yield in fermentation than total starch.     

Physical and nutritional qualities of extruded weaning foods containing sorghum,pearl millet,or finger millet blended with mung beans and nonfat dried milk

Sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet flours (60% of each) were blended with toasted mung bean flour (30%) and nonfat dry milk (10%) and extruded (Brabender single screw) to make precooked, ready-to-eat, weaning foods. The extruded foods had high cold paste viscosity, but their cooked paste viscosity was lower than that of the respective blends. Chemical scores of the extruded foods were 78 for sorghum, 80 for pearl millet, and 96 for finger millet. Protein digstibility corrected amino acid scores (PD-CAS) were similar for pearl millet (68%) and finger millet (69%); PD-CAS for sorghum was 57%. Total dietary fiber content of the foods ranged from 7.6 to 10.1%, with the soluble dietary fiber content of the foods being about 10% higher than that of the corresponding blends. Extrusion enhanced the in vitro protein digestibility of foods, but no marked difference occurred in the in vitro carbohydrate digestibility among the unprocessed blends and the extruded foods. The net protein ratio, protein efficiency ratio, and biological values were higher for the finger millet food than for the pearl millet food, probably because of the higher lysine content of the finger millet protein.Contribution No. 95-253-J of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.     

Effect of extrusion cooking of sorghum flour on rheology,morphology and heating rate of sorghum–wheat composite dough

Addition of a gluten-free flour such as sorghum has negative impact on the quality of wheat dough for bread making. One of the methods which can be used to promote the quality of sorghum-wheat composite dough is to extrude the sorghum flour before incorporation. In this regard, to produce a dough with appropriate bakery properties sorghum flour was extruded at 110 °C and 160 °C die temperature with 10%, 14% and 18% feed moisture. The effect of extruded sorghum flour incorporation (10%) on rheological (farinography and stress relaxation behavior), morphological and temperature profile of sorghum-wheat composite dough were evaluated. Extrusion cooking altered the sorghum-wheat composite dough properties through partial gelatinization of starch granules. Addition of extruded sorghum flour increased the water absorption and dough development time but it decreased the dough stability. Native sorghum-wheat composite dough showed viscoelastic liquid-like behavior whereas addition of sorghum flour extrudate changed dough to a more viscoelastic solid-like structure. Maxwell model was more appropriate than Peleg model to describe the viscoelasticity of the sorghum-wheat composite dough. Extrusion cooking decreased composite dough elasticity and viscosity. Sorghum extrudate increased the heating rate of composite dough crumb during baking. Addition of extruded sorghum flour formed a non-uniform and less compact dough structure. As a result, dough containing extruded sorghum flour had a good potential for producing a high-yielding bread in a short time of baking.     

Digestibility of protein and starch from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is linked to biochemical and structural features of grain endosperm

Although a principal source of energy and protein for millions of the world's poorest people, the nutritional value of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is diminished because of low digestibility of grain protein and starch. To address this problem, we analyzed the properties of two sorghum lines that have a common pedigree but differ in digestibility. Consistent with results based on a ruminal fluid assay, the protein and starch of one line (KS48) was more thoroughly digested than that of the other (KS51) using in vitro assays based on pepsin and α-amylase. The indigestibility of KS51 relative to KS48 was shown to be due to (i) a greater abundance of disulfide-bonded proteins; (ii) presence in KS51 of non-waxy starch and the accompanying granule-bound starch synthase; and (iii) the differing nature of the protein matrix and its interaction with starch. The current findings suggest that each of these factors should be considered in efforts to enhance the nutritional value of sorghum grain.     

Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Responses to Sorghum bicolor (Poales: Poaceae) Tissues From Lowered Lignin Lines

The presence of lignin within biomass impedes the production of liquid fuels. Plants with altered lignin content and composition are more amenable to lignocellulosic conversion to ethanol and other biofuels but may be more susceptible to insect damage where lignin is an important resistance factor. However, reduced lignin lines of switchgrasses still retained insect resistance in prior studies. Therefore, we hypothesized that sorghum lines with lowered lignin content will also retain insect resistance. Sorghum excised leaves and stalk pith Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Poales: Poaceae) from near isogenic brown midrib (bmr) 6 and 12 mutants lines, which have lowered lignin content and increased lignocellulosic ethanol conversion efficiency, were examined for insect resistance relative to wild-type (normal BTx623). Greenhouse and growth chamber grown plant tissues were fed to first-instar larvae of corn earworms, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) and fall armyworms Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), two sorghum major pests. Younger bmr leaves had significantly greater feeding damage in some assays than wild-type leaves, but older bmr6 leaves generally had significantly less damage than wild-type leaves. Caterpillars feeding on the bmr6 leaves often weighed significantly less than those feeding on wild-type leaves, especially in the S. frugiperda assays. Larvae fed the pith from bmr stalks had significantly higher mortality compared with those larvae fed on wild-type pith, which suggested that bmr pith was more toxic. Thus, reducing lignin content or changing subunit composition of bioenergy grasses does not necessarily increase their susceptibility to insects and may result in increased resistance, which would contribute to sustainable production.     

Impact of nitrogen fertilization on Mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) injury and yield in bioenergy sorghum

The Mexican rice borer, Eoreuma loftini (Dyar) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is a serious pest of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), corn (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), and related graminaceous bioenergy crops. A two-year field study was conducted in Jefferson County, TX to examine the impact of nitrogen (N) fertilization on E. loftini infestations and subsequent yields in cultivars of high-biomass and sweet sorghum. In 2013, percentage of bored internodes and number of adult emergence holes per stalk increased with higher N rates; however, only the percentage of bored internodes was impacted by N in 2014. Yields from both years indicated that N rate was positively associated with increases in stalk weight and ethanol productivity, but not sucrose concentration. Because higher N rates were associated with increased yields despite having greater levels of E. loftini injury, our data suggest that increases in yield from additional N outweigh decreases from additional E. loftini injury. Fertilization rates maintained between the recommended 45 and 90 kg N/ha minimize risks of negative area-wide impacts from increased production of E. loftini adults, while still allowing for optimum yields.     

Biomass sorghum production and components under different irrigation/tillage systems for the southeastern U.S.

Renewable energy sources are necessary to reduce the U.S. dependence on foreign oil. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) may be a reasonable alternative as an energy crop in the southern U.S. because it could easily fit into existing production systems, it is drought resistant, and it has large biomass production potential. An experiment was conducted to evaluate several types of sorghum as bioenergy crops in Alabama: grain sorghum - NK300 (GS), forage sorghum - SS 506 (FS), and photoperiod sensitive forage sorghum - 1990 (PS). These sorghum crops were compared to forage corn (Zea mays L.) - Pioneer 31G65 in 2008 and 2009 with and without irrigation, and under conventional (total disked area, 0.15 m deep) and conservation tillage (in-row subsoiling, 0.30 m deep) in a strip-split-plot design. The parameters evaluated were: plant population (PP), plant height (PH), sorghum/corn aboveground dry matter (ADM), biomass moisture content (ABMC), and biomass quality (holocellulose, lignin, and ash). Sorghum had greater ADM than corn; however, corn had lower ABMC than sorghum. Lodging was observed in PS and FS, probably due to high plant populations (>370,000 plants ha⁻¹). Irrigation affected ADM positively in both years, but conservation systems improved ADM production only in 2009. Holocellulose, lignin, and ash variation differed significantly among crops but were lower than 8.3%, 2.0% and 1.9%, respectively, for both years and considered minor. Under conditions of this study, PS was considered the best variety for ADM production as it yielded 26.0 and 30.1 Mg ha⁻¹ at 18 and 24 weeks after planting (WAP).     

Water solubility,thermal characteristics and biodegradability of extruded starch acetate foams

Starch based foams have been studied as replacements for non-degradable expanded polystyrene (EPS) as loose-fill packaging material because of starch’s total degradation and low cost. However, starch’s hydrophilicity, poor mechanical properties and dimensional stability limited their applications. Acetylated starch with a high degree of substitution (DS) is an alternative. Starch acetates with DS 1.11, 1.68, and 2.23 were extruded with either water or ethanol as solvents. The effects of DS and type of solvent on the starch acetate foam’s water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), thermal behavior (glass transition temperature [T_g], melting temperature [T_m], and thermal decomposition temperature), and biodegradability were investigated. There was a significant interaction (P < 0.05) between solvent type and DS on WAI and WSI of the foams. As DS increased from 1.11 to 2.23, WAI and WSI increased when ethanol was used as solvent and decreased when water was used as solvent. The T_g values of starch decreased with acetylation and with increasing DS, but increased with extrusion. Acetylation and extrusion increased the thermal stability of the foams. The rate of biodegradation of the foams decreased with increasing DS. The foams, extruded with ethanol, had higher degradation rates than those with water.     

Phenolic compounds profile in sorghum processed by extrusion cooking and dry heat in a conventional oven

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a gluten-free cereal that has the highest content of phenolic compounds among cereals. It needs to be processed prior to use for human consumption, which may change its antioxidant profile. The knowledge on the effects of extrusion and dry heat in a conventional oven on flavones, flavanones, and proanthocyanidins is limited. Thus, the content and stability to dry heat in a conventional oven (DHCO) and extrusion cooking on phenolic compounds profile in sorghum genotypes were evaluated. Flavanones and flavones decreased after extrusion cooking (100%) and DHCO (31.7–61.6%). The 3-deoxyanthocyanidins were stable in DHCO but were susceptible to extrusion cooking (70.7–93.9%). Proanthocyanidins were identified only in the genotype SC391 and were reduced after both treatments (DHCO: 39.2% and extrusion cooking: 52.1%). Phenols decreased in the genotype SC319 submitted to DHCO (8.3%) and in all extruded genotypes (13.6–14.9%). The DHCO increased the antioxidant capacity in all genotypes, whereas extrusion cooking reduced antioxidant capacity in only two genotypes. In general, differential stability of the major flavonoids in sorghum was observed under DHCO and extrusion cooking, implying that different processing techniques can be selected to minimize losses of bioactive polyphenols in sorghum depending on the flavonoid composition.     

Biochemical and sensory evaluation of wheat bran supplemented sorghum bread

Addition of wheat bran to sorghum flour (Dabar cultivar) at two extraction rates 72% and 80% resulted in lowering reducing sugars. The percent decreasewas 75.6% compared with the control at the end of fermentation period. There was a highly significant (p 0.05) increase in crude fiber content as a result of addition of wheat bran. The increase was from 0.8 to 5.2 and from 0.5 to 5.3% for the 80% S/WB and 72% S/WB blends, respectively. Sorghum bread containing wheat bran was lower in reducing sugars and showed a significant increase (p 0.05) in starch content. Sorghum bread containing wheat bran resulted in a lower in vitro protein and starch digestibilities.     

Biomass, extracted liquid yields, sugar content or seed yields of biofuel feedstocks as affected by fertilizer

Harvesting products from plants for conversion into renewable resources is increasing in importance. Determination of nutrition requirements for the applicable crops is necessary, especially in regions where the biofuel feedstock crops have not been historically grown. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), two hybrids and one variety; sweet and grain (milo) sorghums (both Sorghum bicolor L.), one variety each, and sweet corn (Zea mays var. rugosa Bonaf.), four cultivars, were provided the recommended and twice the recommended rate of fertilizer. Biomass, expressed liquid volumes and sugar contents of sweet sorghum and sweet corn were determined. Grain yields of milo and sunflower and oil content of sunflower were determined. Sweet corn stalk sugar levels were below what is expected from field corn (maize), and were not affected by fertilizer rate. Sweet sorghum biomass and sugar content were within expected ranges and not affected by fertilizer rate. Milo grain yields were higher with increased fertilizer. Seed yield in Sunflower, which was below expected levels, was inconsistently affected by fertilizer rate, years or varieties. Overall crops year and cultivar/variety had more effect on results than did fertilizer. There does not appear to be a reason to provide fertilizer above recommended rates in production of these crops.     

Use of phytotoxic plant residues for selective weed control

Both fall- and spring-planted grasses were evaluated for weed-suppressing ability after desiccation by freezing, glyphosate or paraquat. Populations of Portulaca oleracea L. and Digitaria ischaemum (Schreb.) Muhl. were reduced by 70% and 98%, respectively, by residues of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.). Total weed biomass and weight of several indicator species were also consistently reduced with residues of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oats (Avena sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.), as well as the sorghums. In general, the larger-seeded vegetables, particularly legumes, grew normally or were sometimes stimulated by the cover-crop residues, whereas several species of smaller-seeded vegetables were severely injured. The use of Populus wood shavings as a control mulch allowed separation of physical and chemical aspects of the residues. Glasshouse experiments with two soils confirmed both weed-suppressing and crop-stimulating effects of sorghum residues. Water extracts of sorghum herbage were toxic to indicator species in sterile bioassays: this suggests that phytotoxins are directly released by the plant residues.     

Carotenoid bioaccessibility from whole grain and decorticated yellow endosperm sorghum porridge

Sorghum is a staple crop and a potential dietary source of carotenoids in semi-arid regions of Africa, but information on the bioavailability of these pigments is limited. This study aimed at exploring the effects of agronomic manipulation on sorghum carotenoid contents at selected stages of kernel development and maturation and assessing carotenoid bioaccessibility from matured yellow-endosperm sorghum varieties (P88 and P1222), by comparing porridge made from sorghum whole and decorticated milled grains. Carotenoid content of sorghum milled fractions ranged from 2.90 to 7.22 mg/kg in P88 unbagged decorticated flour, at 50 and 30 days after half bloom (DAHB) respectively, to 9.87-13.69 mg/kg in bagged decorticated bran fractions in P88, at 50 and 30 DAHB respectively. Maize milled fractions were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in carotenoid content than all sorghum products. Bagging increased sorghum carotenoid content by 8-184% vs. unbagged panicles. Carotenoid bioaccessibility was generally higher from sorghum (63-81%) compared to maize (45-47%). Micellarization of xanthophylls (75%) was more efficient than carotenes (52%) in sorghum, while they were similar in maize (40-49%). These results suggest that the higher bioaccessibility of sorghum carotenoids combined with efforts to enhance sorghum carotenoid content may allow for sorghum to provide similar levels of bioaccessible carotenoid pigments as common yellow maize.