Distribution of tissue enzymes in three species of pinnipeds.

In domestic animal medicine, changes in serum enzyme levels are routinely used as diagnostic tools to detect liver disease. Hepatic disease occurs in pinnipeds, but limited data are available on the tissue distribution of serum enzymes in marine mammals. The objectives of this study were to determine the tissue distribution of seven serum enzymes in three pinniped species. Enzymes evaluated were alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) in tissues from California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) (n = 5), harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) (n = 5), and northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) (n = 5) that stranded and then died at a rehabilitation center. Samples were evaluated in duplicate from liver, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, kidney, adrenal, spleen, pancreas, lung, lymph node, and intestine. Patterns of tissue enzyme distribution were similar in all species, with SDH activity highest in liver and kidney, CK activity highest in skeletal and cardiac muscle, ALP activity highest in adrenal, and GGT activity highest in the kidney. Aspartate aminotransferase and LDH activities were less specific, with high activity in multiple tissues. Tissue ALT activity was high in the liver of all species, but was also high in cardiac muscle (California sea lions), skeletal muscle (harbor seals), and kidney (elephant seals). These results suggest that concurrent analysis of SDH, ALT, and CK would provide high specificity and sensitivity for the detection of hepatic lesions, and allow differentiation of liver from skeletal muscle lesions in pinniped species.     

Immunoglobulins, lysozyme and lactoferrin in the teat and udder of the dry cow during endotoxin-induced inflammation.

Immunoglobulins (Ig) and antibacterial proteins like lysozyme and lactoferrin are components of the humoral defence against infections. Changes in Ig, lysozyme and lactoferrin concentrations during endotoxin-induced inflammation in the test cistern and udder quarter of the dry cow were studied. Surgical closure of the passage between teat and udder cisterns enabled studies of reactions in the teat cistern without interference of the mammary gland. After endotoxin infusion, IgG1, IgG2, lysozyme, and to some extent IgM, increased in the teats and udder quarters, and were positively correlated with changes in somatic cell counts. No significant changes were observed in IgA or lactoferrin. The origin and significance of Ig, lysozyme and lactoferrin in the bovine teat and udder are discussed. Ig probably originated both from serum and from local plasma cells, while leukocytes appeared to be the source of lysozyme during inflammation. Secretory epithelium appeared to be the source of lactoferrin. Support for this theory was the almost total absence of lactoferrin in teat cistern samples.     

Udder health in relation to udder and teat morphometry in Holstein Friesian × Sahiwal crossbred dairy cows

The present investigation involved 261 Holstein Friesian (HF) × Sahiwal cows to study the udder health as well as the udder and teat morphometry. The udder health was defined on the basis of bacteriology and California mastitis test of quarter foremilk. The morphometry parameters included udder fore depth (UFD, distance from the point where the fore udder merges within the abdomen to a point in front of the fore teats at the level of the udder base), udder rear depth (URD, distance from the bottom of the vulva to the base of the rear udder), udder depth (UD, level of the udder base with respect to hock joint), height of the udder from the floor, teat length, teat diameter (at mid of the teat barrel), teat-tip to floor distance and distance between the teats. The URD, UD and height of udder from the floor showed a significant (P?<?0.05) relation to the udder health with mastitic cows having larger URD, smaller udder distance from the floor and the udder base placed below the hock joint. The cows with teat length larger than 4.5 cm and teat diameter 3.0 cm or larger had significantly more quarters affected with mastitis. Further, cows with teats placed nearer to the floor were more susceptible to mastitis (P?<?0.01). No significant differences were found between healthy and mastitic udders with respect to UFD and distance between teats. It can be concluded that selection for optimum udder and teat morphometry in breeding programmes may help to reduce susceptibility to intramammary infections in HF × Sahiwal cows.     

蚂蚁山奶牛场奶牛乳房线性性状的评定和分析

选择蚌埠蚂蚁山奶牛场，随机抽取荷斯坦奶牛220头进行6个乳房线性性状即前房附着、后房高度、后房宽度、悬韧带、乳房深度和乳头长度的线性评定和分析。结果表明：蚂蚁山奶牛场荷斯坦奶牛6个乳房性状线性评分分别是30．0分、46．7分、29．5分、38．3分、18．0分和21．0分；功能分各为80分、92分、80分、88分、68分和72分；奶牛乳房线性性状的总体评定成绩中等偏上，前房附着、后房高度、后房宽度、悬韧带、乳房深度、乳头长度的评定等级分别为佳、优、佳、良、中、中；其中以“后房高度”表现最好。     

淮南地区荷斯坦奶牛泌乳系统性状的线性评定及分析

以安徽淮南乳品公司为试验试点．随机抽取荷斯坦奶牛493头(1～11胎)，进行奶牛体型线性评定中泌乳系统性状即前房附着、后房高度、后房宽度、悬韧带、乳房深度、乳头位置和乳头长度的线性选择评定及分析。结果表明：淮南地区荷斯坦奶牛泌乳系统性状的表现中等偏好．前房附着、后房高度、后房宽度、悬韧带、乳房深度、乳头位置、乳头长度的线性评分分别是31．95、46．98、29，09、37．47、15．08、39．74和20．82分．评定等级各为佳、优、好、良、中、良、中。同时，后房高度、后房宽度、乳头位置的线性评分随胎次变化而变化很小且无规律可循，各胎次几乎相同；乳头长度、悬韧带的线性评分随胎次升高而增加，但后者幅度很小；前房附着、乳房深度的线性评分均表现随胎次的升高而降低的趋势。     

中国荷斯坦牛部分乳房结构特性对泌乳性能的影响

本研究对规模化场奶牛乳房结构部分性状进行评价和测定,旨在分析其影响因素及其与泌乳性能的关系。现场评价和测定我国北方6个规模化奶牛场荷斯坦牛的乳房均衡(2 030条)、乳头长度(1 551条)和乳头位置评分(分前、后乳头,2 839条),使用SAS 9.2 GLM过程采用固定效应模型分析影响上述3个乳房性状的因素,同时分析3个单项性状对校正日产奶量和体细胞评分的影响。结果表明:场和胎次对3个乳房性状影响极显著(P0.01);前、后乳头位置和后乳头长度对校正日产奶量有显著影响(P0.05),校正日产奶量与前乳头位置评分值呈正比,与后乳头位置评分值呈反比;前乳头位置和长度对体细胞评分有显著影响(P0.05),体细胞评分随前乳头位置评分的增大而减小;5~5.5 cm的乳头长度对于校正日产奶量和体细胞评分都最佳。本研究结果为通过乳房性状选择、淘汰并提高奶牛的生产性能、乳房健康提供了参考。     

Immune mechanisms of the bovine udder: an overview

Understanding basic defenses of the udder is instrumental in developing measures to prevent mastitis. The teat canal is the first defense against pathogens, providing a physical barrier and antimicrobial substances. When bacteria breach the teat canal, milk leukocytes provide a second defense by ingesting pathogens. Intramammary devices have been used experimentally to increase leukocyte numbers and to enhance destruction of bacteria. Milk antibodies opsonize and lyse bacteria, neutralize toxins, and prevent adhesion to tissue. Vaccinating cows against mastitis generally has been unsuccessful; however, immunization is useful in controlling specific bacterial strains. Antibody-producing plasma cells preferentially accumulate in internal teat end tissues. Because bacteria contact these tissues to reach milk-producing areas of the udder, an immunostimulant to enhance locally the protective nature of plasma cells may decrease the occurrence of infection.     

奶牛纯中药乳头消毒剂的临床应用效果观察

将93头奶牛分成3组,1组31头用碘伏进行乳头药浴,2 组 32 头用鱼腥草、红花和明矾组成的中药乳头消毒剂进行药浴,30 头作为对照组,35 d的临床应用,结果如下:中药乳头消毒剂和碘伏能使临床型乳腺炎发病率降低,差异不显著(P>0 05);1组隐性乳腺炎的发病率,由药浴前的 58 1%下降到 48 4%,与对照组差异显著(P<0 05),2组隐性乳腺炎的发病率由药浴前的81 3%下降到药浴后的75%,与对照组差异显著(P>0 05);1 组和2组隐性乳腺炎的乳区发病率差异不显著(P>0 05),与对照组差异极显著(P<0 01);中药乳头消毒剂药浴后体细胞数和LDH活性明显降低,与药浴前差异显著(P<0 05);NAGase的活性药浴前后差异不显著(P>0 05),该中药乳头消毒剂对奶产量无显著影响。     

Cytologic observations of the bovine teat end

Cells infiltrating from the vasculature and histologic components of internal tissues of teats (mammary papilla) from noninfected udder quarters were studied, using light and electron microscopy. Morphometric analysis demonstrated a progressive increase in number of infiltrating cells from the distal teat cistern (sinus papillaris) to the junction of the Furstenberg's rosette (distal termination and convergence of mucosal folds lining the teat cistern) and the streak canal (ductus papillaris). Plasma cells contributed to cellular increases in subepithelial connective tissue and were the most prevalent infiltrating cell type. Plasma cells also penetrated the basal epithelial lining of the rosette area and occasionally migrated to the luminal surface near the squamocolumnar junction. Neutrophils and monocytes contributed to the increase in cells infiltrating the epithelial lining. Few infiltrating cells were observed in epithelium and underlying stroma of the streak canal. Cytologic comparison demonstrated a reduction in all cell types from lactating to involuting phases of lactation. Greater numbers of plasma cells, lymphocytes, and monocytes were observed in teat end tissues from quarters previously infected with Staphylococcus aureus.     

Prevention of intramammary infections in dairy cows by the use of a premilking teat dip method with a foaming iodophor dip agent

In this study we investigated the efficacy of premilking teat dipping with a foaming iodophor teat dip in a negative controlled field study. Incidence of new intramammary infections (IMI), incidence of clinical mastitis, influence on somatic cell count (SCC) and the characteristics of udder tissue and teats were used as parameters to evaluate clinical efficacy. Predipping was compared with a negative control using a split-udder experimental design. Right teats were predipped with a foaming disinfectant containing 0.27% iodine while left teats served as controls. The latter were conventionally cleaned with damp cloth towels and dried manually with disposable paper towels ("best cleaning practice"). All teats were dipped after milking with the same dip. There were no differences between treated and control quarters with respect to incidence of new IMI during the study period (treated quarters: 6.6% vs. untreated: 6.95%), incidence of clinical mastitis (30 cases in the treatment group vs. 39 cases in the control group) and geometric mean of SCC of quarter milk samples. Spectrum of detected pathogens was also comparable. Condition of udder tissue and teat ducts did not differ between treated and control quarters.     

Inflammatory reactions in the teat and udder of the dry cow

The inflammatory reactions in the teat and udder of the dry cow were studied by total and differential somatic cell counts (SCC) and by measuring bovine serum albumin, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase (NAGase), plasminogen and plasmin. The teat and udder cisterns were surgically separated from each other in two udder quarters of each cow. Salmonella endotoxin was infused in one teat cistern and one udder quarter, and saline was infused in one teat cistern and one udder quarter. The inflammatory response was followed by several samplings post infusion. The reactions in the dry udder quarters were mainly in line with the results of similar studies in lactating glands. The differential SCC and the NAGase results were, however, somewhat different. The teats were capable of a strong inflammatory response. Reactions different from those seen in the glands were observed with regard to permeability changes and NAGase. The experimental model used showed promising results and is suitable for further studies of the inflammatory process.     

Mammary development and milk production in the sow: Effects of udder massage, genotype and feeding in late gestation

The primary aim of the study was to investigate whether post-ejection udder massage 1–2 weeks pp (post partum) had an effect on the amount of mammary tissue and milk production in the domestic sow.

The nursing behaviour of 35 primiparous LYL or YLY sows and their litters was followed on days 7 and 14 pp. The milk production was measured by the weigh–suckle–weigh method of the whole litter on days 11 and 18 pp. After weaning on day 28 pp, the sows were slaughtered and the mammary tissue excised and weighed.

No significant correlations were found between the duration of post-ejection udder massage and the subsequent milk production. LYL sows had more mammary tissue (P < 0.05) and their piglets spent more time performing post-ejection udder massage compared to the YLY sows (P < 0.01). Individual variation was found in the proportion of time that the sows were lying on either their right or left side. The weight of the mammary tissue from the left side was positively affected by the amount of udder massage (pre- and post-ejection massage) that the sows had received while lying on the right side relative to the amount that she had received while lying on the left side on day 7 pp (P < 0.01).

In conclusion, the intensity of udder massage influenced the amount of mammary tissue at slaughter. The genotype of the sow affected the expression of nursing behaviour and milk production. No connection was found between post-ejection udder massage and the measures of milk production 1–2 weeks pp. Finally, feeding during the last half of gestation affected the nursing behaviour.     

Risks factors associated with subclinical mastitis in water buffaloes in Pakistan

The present study was carried to ascertain the association of various risk factors of mastitis in water buffaloes. The milk samples from buffaloes were collected and screened through California Mastitis Test for the presence of mastitis. In the present study, 15.2 % prevalence of subclinical mastitis was recorded both at the government (13.4 %) and private farms (15.5 %). The chi-square analysis showed significantly higher involvement of the right rear and front quarters. The analysis of variance technique showed significant difference in live body weight, milk yield, teat end to floor distance (P?<?0.001), udder depth, teat length, and teat diameter in mastitic and healthy buffaloes. The frequency analysis also revealed significant difference between various groups including lactation stage, teat and/or udder pathology, teat shape, and udder shape (P?<?0.001). The logistic regression analysis revealed significant positive association of mastitis with milk leakage, live body weight, milk yield, parity, calf suckling, pendulous udder, number of attendants at the farm, dirty hind legs, and udder depth.     

Tissue distribution of benzylpenicillin after intramammary administration in the isolated perfused bovine udder

Udders from previously healthy lactating cows were perfused with warmed and gassed Tyrode solution in vitro. Benzylpenicillin was administered in three formulations: an oily suspension with micronized particles of <10 microm diameter, an oily suspension with average particle size of 40 microm and an aqueous solution (3 million IU benzylpenicillin-potassium, volume 15 mL). The antibiotics were administered intracisternally to six front and six rear quarters each. Moreover, a dry-off-ointment (100 000 IU benzylpenicillin-potassium and 100 000 IU benzylpenicillin-benzathine, volume 7.5 mL) was tested in four udder halves. Perfusate samples were collected over 3 h. Furthermore, glandular tissue at different vertical distances from the teat base and the regional lymph node were sampled after 3 h. The determination of benzylpenicillin was performed by high pressure liquid chromatography with UV detection. With increasing distance from the teat base, the concentration of benzylpenicillin in tissue exponentially decreased. Using the aqueous solution or oily suspension that contained micronized active principle, higher concentrations were reached compared to the formulation with particle sizes of 40 microm. In udder lymph nodes, the concentration was highest after treatment with the coarse suspension. The transfer from the dry-off-ointment with benzathine-salt into perfusate was very low. These results suggest that it is possible to study tissue distribution of antibiotics in the isolated perfused bovine udder.     

宁夏地区荷斯坦牛乳房性状的遗传参数估计和主成分分析

旨在评估宁夏地区荷斯坦牛乳房性状的遗传水平。本研究使用DMU（v6.0）软件的AI-REML模块结合EM算法并配合多性状动物模型对宁夏地区12 415头荷斯坦牛，包括111 735个观察值的9个乳房性状进行遗传参数估计，运用主成分分析法（PCA）探讨构象性状之间的关系。结果表明，宁夏地区荷斯坦牛乳房性状遗传力处于中等偏低水平，乳房深度遗传力值为0.242，乳房质地为0.080，悬韧带为0.183，前乳房附着为0.230，前乳头位置为0.231，前乳头长度为0.173，后乳房高为0.272，后乳房宽为0.378，后乳头位置为0.169。各性状遗传相关范围为-0.277~0.706，表型相关范围为-0.084~0.316。研究共筛选出特征值≥1的4个主成分，占总方差的64.19%，且9个乳房性状在前3个主成分中已全部体现，荷载系数均在0.4以上。本研究通过对宁夏地区奶牛DHI数据的深入挖掘和遗传参数估计，准确地把握了宁夏奶牛群体的结构特征，对于奶牛的选种选配和育种规划具有重要意义。     

Morphometric analysis of involuting bovine mammary tissue after 21 or 42 days on non-suckling

Mammary gland involution was morphologically evaluated 21 or 42 d after prevention of suckling of one udder half in 10 crossbred beef cows. Parenchymal tissue was taken from lower, middle and upper zones of each quarter from the teat to the ventral body wall. Udder halves, trimmed of extraparenchymal tissue, were weighed and used for DNA determination. DNA content was reduced 50 and 64% after 21 and 42 d of involution. However, the percentage of tissue occupied by epithelium was similar in suckled and nonsuckled glands. Well-differentiated cells, typical of suckled glands, were rarely observed in nonsuckled glands. Alveolar structure was evident in nonsuckled glands, but the number of cells per alveolar cross-section was reduced (30 vs 22). Unlike in suckled glands, there was a marked gradation in classification of epithelial cells across zones in involuting glands. For example, nearly 10% of the epithelium was well-differentiated in the tissue from the upper zone, whereas no well-differentiated cells were found in the lower zones. Regression of the mammary parenchyma does not occur uniformly through the udder, so use of single biopsy to study involution should be avoided. Presence of alveoli after 42 d indicates that redevelopment of the udder with subsequent lactations is less dramatic than suggested from study of other species.     

Relationships between Longevity and Linear Type Traits in Holstein Cattle Population of Southern Africa

Relationships between longevity and linear type traits were estimated using data on 34,201 cows with lifetime information and linear type scores. The longevity trait considered was the number of lactations initiated and the linear type traits were rump height, body depth, angularity, rear udder height, fore udder attachment, udder depth, fore teat placement and fore teat length. Fixed effects included in the models were herd year, season of calving and herd-date of classification-classifier and days in milk. Age at first calving and age at classification were included as linear and quadratic covariates. Heritability estimates were low for longevity and moderate for most type traits except rump height and fore teat length. All the phenotypic correlations between longevity and the linear type traits were slightly positive (0.01 to 0.09) except the relationships with rump height and fore teat length which were -0.01 and -0.02, respectively. Genetic correlations between longevity and udder traits as well as angularity were moderate to high and positive (0.22 to 0.48). The only notable negative genetic correlations were longevity with body depth and fore teat length (-0.15 and -0.07, respectively). The genetic correlations suggest that selection for udder traits and angularity should improve longevity in the Holstein cattle population.     

实验性兔出血症病兔肝脏酶组织化学变化研究

用组织化学染色法,对实验性感染兔出血症(RHD)病毒后不同病期(潜伏期、高热期、濒死期和死亡时)病兔的肝脏碱性磷酸酶(AKP)、酸性磷酸酶(ACP)、三磷酸腺苷酶(ATPase)、琥珀酸脱氢酶(SDH)和乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)的活性变化进行了动态观察。结果表明,肝脏AKP、ACP、和LDH活性在潜伏期至高热期增强,以后各期均减弱;ATPase和SDH在病程各期均明显减弱。从而推论,肝细胞的坏死与ACP活性增强、溶酶体活跃有关;黄疸的发生与ATPase活性减弱及肝细胞线粒体受损有关;病兔的肝脏代谢以无氧酵解为主。     

Bovine serum albumin and cell counts in the diagnosis of subclinical udder infection

Summary

Puncture of the milk cisterns was performed in 120 bacteriologically positive quarters of forty‐seven lactating dairy cows on three farms. This method was used to determine whether the existing infection was an infection of the teat canal or one of the udder. The results were related to the concentration of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and the cell count in the milk. Of the bacteriologically negative quarters, both BSA levels (in 91 per cent of the quarters the BSA concentration was 0.20 mg. per ml. of milk or less) and cell counts (92 per cent contained less than 500,000 cells per ml. of milk) were low. In cases of udder infection with primary pathogenic bacteria there was a marked increase in cell count (90 per cent more than 500,000 cells per ml. of milk), whereas the increase in BSA was rather small (51 per cent still contained 0.20 mg. BSA per ml. of milk or less). While the difference in cell counts of milk from quarters with udder infections and teat canal infections with primary pathogenic bacteria was significant, the difference between the BSA levels of these two groups was not. Therefore, the cell count supplies more reliable information than does the BSA level of the milk. Of all infections, 23 per cent were found to be infections of the teat canal.     

Tissue distribution of cefquinome after intramammary and "systemic" administration in the isolated perfused bovine udder

Mammary glands taken at slaughter from healthy lactating cows were perfused in vitro with warmed and gassed Tyrode solution. Cefquinome (88.8mg cefquinome sulphate per 8mL) was administered by the intramammary route to all quarters and/or "systemically" via the perfusion fluid at concentrations similar to those measured in plasma following intramuscular administration of 1mg cefquinome per kg body weight. Samples of the perfusate were taken over a 6-h period and from the regional lymph nodes after 6h. Using a scalpel, sections of glandular tissue - at different distances from and vertical to the teat right up to the udder base - were gathered from four quarters each per route of administration at 2, 4 and 6h. The cefquinome content of the tissue samples was analysed by high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and of the perfusate samples by bioassay. After intramammary administration, the concentration of cefquinome in the glandular tissue decreased exponentially with increasing distance from the teat. The addition of cefquinome to the perfusion fluid produced a mean concentration of 0.2-0.5microg/g at all glandular tissue sites. Combined intramammary and systemic treatment ensured that concentrations exceeded the MIC(90) values of the most common mastitis pathogens in all areas of the udder by 2h post-administration. There was considerable variability in the tissue concentrations of cefquinome, particularly after intramammary administration. These results suggest that for the treatment of acute mastitis a combination of both intramammary and systemic administration is likely to be advantageous in order to rapidly produce maximum cefquinome concentrations in all regions of the udder.