RADIOGRAPHIC PROTOCOL AND NORMAL ANATOMY OF THE HIND FEET IN THE WHITE RHINOCEROS (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM)

Foot pathology is a common and important health concern in captive rhinoceroses worldwide, but osteopathologies are rarely diagnosed, partly because of a lack of radiographic protocols. Here, we aimed to develop the first radiographic protocol for rhinoceros feet and describe the radiographic anatomy of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) hind foot (pes). Computed tomographic images were obtained of nine cadaver pedes from seven different white rhinoceroses and assessed for pathology. A single foot deemed free of pathology was radiographed using a range of different projections and exposures to determine the best protocol. 3D models were produced from the CT images and were displayed with the real radiographs to describe the normal radiographic anatomy of the white rhinoceros pes. An optimal radiographic projection was determined for each bone in the rhinoceros pes focusing on highlighting areas where pathology has been previously described. The projections deemed to be most useful were D60Pr‐PlDiO (digit III), D45Pr45M‐PlDiLO (digit II), and D40Pr35L‐PlDiLO (digit IV). The primary beam was centered 5–7 cm proximal to the cuticle on the digit of interest. Articular surfaces, ridges, grooves, tubercles, processes and fossae were identified. The radiographic protocol we have developed along with the normal radiographic anatomy we have described will allow for more accessible and effective diagnosis of white rhinoceros foot osteopathologies.     

XERORADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE EQUINE DIGIT AND METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION

The purpose of the project was to use xeroradiography to provide a reference for radiographic anatomy of the equine digit and metacarpophalangeal region. The left foredigits and metacarpophalangeal joints of a mature horse and a 30-day-old foal were radiographed, using xeroradiographic techniques. Fifteen xeroradiographs, illustrating standard projections of each area, were selected and appropriately labeled to demonstrate normal radiographic anatomy of these regions. These xeroradiographs have been used successfully for several years to teach radiographic anatomy of these areas to first-year veterinary students at North Carolina State University.     

VALIDATION OF A NOVEL TECHNIQUE FOR CREATING SIMULATED RADIOGRAPHS USING COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY DATASETS

Understanding radiographic anatomy and the effects of varying patient and radiographic tube positioning on image quality can be a challenge for students. The purposes of this study were to develop and validate a novel technique for creating simulated radiographs using computed tomography (CT) datasets. A DICOM viewer (ORS Visual) plug‐in was developed with the ability to move and deform cuboidal volumetric CT datasets, and to produce images simulating the effects of tube‐patient‐detector distance and angulation. Computed tomographic datasets were acquired from two dogs, one cat, and one horse. Simulated radiographs of different body parts (n = 9) were produced using different angles to mimic conventional projections, before actual digital radiographs were obtained using the same projections. These studies (n = 18) were then submitted to 10 board‐certified radiologists who were asked to score visualization of anatomical landmarks, depiction of patient positioning, realism of distortion/magnification, and image quality. No significant differences between simulated and actual radiographs were found for anatomic structure visualization and patient positioning in the majority of body parts. For the assessment of radiographic realism, no significant differences were found between simulated and digital radiographs for canine pelvis, equine tarsus, and feline abdomen body parts. Overall, image quality and contrast resolution of simulated radiographs were considered satisfactory. Findings from the current study indicated that radiographs simulated using this new technique are comparable to actual digital radiographs. Further studies are needed to apply this technique in developing interactive tools for teaching radiographic anatomy and the effects of varying patient and tube positioning.     

Gross osteology and radiology of the pelvic limb of the adult small East African goat

The aim of this study was to provide the detailed normal gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the pelvic limb in adult small East African goats as a reference for clinical use, biomedical research and teaching. Radiography of the pelvic limb was performed in five adult small East African goats. Bone specimens of four skeletally mature small East African goats were used for gross osteological study. The ilial wing was wide. The ischiatic tuberosity was prominent and well developed. The acetabulum was rounded. The minor trochanter was located caudomedially, and the femoral trochlea was deep and narrow. The lateral and medial condyles of the femur were approximately of the same size. The tibial tuberosity was prominent, and the cochlea grooves were deep with a pronounced intermediate ridge. The trochlea of the talus was deep. The patella presented a prominent tuberosity on the cranial surface. The metatarsal sesamoid bone was seen in all animals. The observed gross osteology and radiographic anatomy of the pelvic limb of small East African goats was consistent with the presence of strong extensor muscles of the hip, stifle and tarsus for propulsion during terrestrial walking and trotting.     

How useful is plastination in learning anatomy?

In recent years plastination has begun to revolutionize the way in which human and veterinary gross anatomy can be presented to students. The study reported here assessed the efficacy of plastinated organs as teaching resources in an innovative anatomy teaching/learning system. The main objective was to evaluate whether the use of plastinated organs improves the quality of teaching and learning of anatomy. For this purpose, we used an interdepartmental approach involving the departments of Veterinary Anatomy, Human Anatomy, Veterinary Surgery, and Education Development and Research Methods. The knowledge base of control and experimental student groups was examined before and after use of the fixed or plastinated resources, respectively, to gather information evaluating the effectiveness of these teaching resources. Significant differences (p < 0.001) between control and experimental groups of Human and Veterinary Anatomy were observed in the post-test results. The Veterinary Surgery students had the most positive opinion of the use of plastinated specimens. Using these data, we were able to quantitatively characterize the use of plastinated specimens as anatomy teaching resources. This analysis showed that all the plastinated resources available were heavily used and deemed useful by students. Although the properties of plastinated specimens accommodate student needs at various levels, traditional material should be used in conjunction with plastinated resources.     

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Cross Section Images of the Cat Thorax

Accurate interpretation of thoracic magnetic resonance images requires a thorough knowledge of anatomy of this region. The purpose of this communication is to describe the normal cross sectional anatomy of the thoracic cavity of the cat, using MR images, dissections and macroscopic sections. In this study, three cats were used. The animals were anesthetized and positioned in sternal recumbency in the MR scanner. MR imaging was performed at the Special Diagnostic Service of San Roque Clinic of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria with a superconducting magnet operating at a field strength of 1.5 Tesla and a human body coil. Spin echo pulse sequences were used to obtain T1-weighted images in tranverse and sagittal planes. At the conclusion of imaging, the cats were euthanatized for medical reasons unrelated to disease of thorax. The cats were frozen and then sectioned using an electric band saw. The cuts were matched as closely as possible to the MR images for identifying the normal planimetric anatomy of the thoracic structures. MR T1-weighted spin echo images provided excellent anatomic appearance of the thorax structures. In MR images the grey scale is directly related to the signal intensity of the thoracic cavity structures. Thus, fat and nerves had higher signal intensity compared with the lower signal intensity of the respiratory system. Bone marrow and muscles had a intermediate signal intensity and appeared gray. The intensity signal of the articular fluid permits a good differentiation of the opposing cartilage surfaces on all MR images. The planimetric or sectional anatomy of the thoracic cavity in the cat allows a correct morphologic and topographic evaluation of the anatomic structures, being helpful tool for the identification of the MR images. The information presented should serve as an initial reference to evaluate MR images of the feline thorax and to assist interpretation of lesions of this region.     

Communication skills training at the Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island

Communication skills are considered a core clinical skill in human medicine. Recognizing the importance of communication skills and addressing them in veterinary curricula, however, is just beginning. In the fall of 2003, the Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, markedly changed the way in which it approaches communication teaching. An intensive one-week elective rotation on client communication was offered in the senior year. This rotation made extensive use of experiential techniques through the use of role plays and videotaped real client interactions. A group of faculty and hospital staff members were trained as coaches to support students as they practiced their communication in various client scenarios. The skills taught were based on the Calgary-Cambridge Observation Guide, which outlines observable behaviors that contribute to effective medical communication. Student response to and feedback on the rotation have been very positive. As a result, the number of rotations given per year has been increased. Long-term plans include expanding communication skills teaching into other years of the DVM program and incorporating simulated clients into the teaching program. Challenges that lie ahead include the development of a fully integrated communication teaching program that spans the whole curriculum, addressing the ongoing need for the professional development of coaches, improving methods of student assessment, and recruiting/training a sufficient number of coaches.     

THE NORMAL XERORADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE COCKATIEL (NYMPHZCUS HOLLANDZS)

The purpose of the study was to provide a reference for the normal radiographic anatomy of the cockatiel ( Nymphicus hollundis ). The head, body, wing, and pelvic limb of mature males were radiographed using xeroradiographic and conventional radiographic techniques. Ten xeroradiographs and ten corresponding conventional radiographs were selected, and the xeroradiographs appropriately labeled to illustrate the normal radiographic anatomy of these regions.     

RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE CANINE COXOFEMORAL JOINT USING THE DORSAL ACETABULAR RIM (DAR) VIEW

A radiographic study of the anatomy of the canine acetabulum was performed. The relationship between the area of dorsal acetabular rim that is subject to early damage in dogs with coxofemoral joint laxity, and the "DAR point" identified on dorsal acetabular rim (DAR) radiographic views was examined. Radiographs and digital photographs were made of the pelvis harvested from each of six skeletally mature dogs. Through analysis of these images, it was determined that in the standing animal, the DAR point is located 4–6 mm (or approximately 37°) caudal to the dorsal acetabular rim area that is prone to early damage in dogs with coxofemoral joint laxity. This study suggests that the DAR radiographic view may under-represent changes to the dorsal acetabular rim in dogs with coxofemoral laxity.     

Teaching non-technical (professional) competence in a veterinary school curriculum

Data from focused studies and comprehensive surveys suggest that developing or enhancing non-technical (professional) skills will result in a more satisfied and successful veterinary student or veterinary graduate. The College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University has devoted considerable time, effort, and resources to augmenting the non-technical aspects of its curriculum while maintaining the traditional strengths of its DVM program. Here we summarize pertinent research and best-practice recommendations from a variety of sources and outline the steps that have been taken, with the underlying rationales, to integrate the teaching and modeling of non-technical (professional) competence throughout a four-year course of veterinary study.     

新农科背景下动物解剖学课程“123X”教学模式的创新与实践

本研究以培养新农科背景下畜牧兽医行业一线急需的应用型人才为目标,结合动物解剖学课程特点,构建了“一中心、二平台、三路径、多环节”（123X）课程教学模式,以学生综合能力培养为中心,利用线上教学平台和线下实验实习平台,采用线上虚拟仿真项目与课程网络资源结合、线下实体解剖、解剖协会第二课堂三路径,通过思政融入课程、虚拟仿真实验融入实验教学等多环节,激发学生学习积极性和主动性,培养学生综合能力,形成了具有推广示范效应的动物解剖学课程教学典型经验。     

Comparison of digitized and conventional radiographic images for assessment of hip joint conformation in dogs

OBJECTIVE: To determine agreement between assessments of canine hip joint conformation provided by board-certified radiologists after evaluation of digitized and conventional radiographic images. SAMPLE POPULATION: 200 pelvic radiographs previously evaluated by radiologists using the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals standard grading system for canine hip joint conformation. PROCEDURES: Each of 20 board-certified radiologists evaluated conventional and digitized pelvic radiographs from each of 200 dogs for hip joint conformation. A weighted kappa coefficient and intraclass correlation were used to determine agreement between assessments derived from digitized radiographic images and conventional radiographs and between the original Orthopedic Foundation for Animals conformation ratings and assessments derived from each image format. RESULTS: Overall, agreement between assessments derived from the digitized images and conventional radiographs was good, with all but 1 radiologist attaining a weighted kappa coefficient > 0.61. Intraclass correlation for each radiologist ranged from 0.75 to 0.98 (95% confidence interval, 0.67 to 0.984). On comparison of conformation assessments, 95.7% of those derived from conventional radiographs and digitized images were within 1 grade. On comparison of digitized radiographic conformation assessments and conformation ratings, 94.2% were within 1 grade. On comparison of conventional radiographic conformation assessments and conformation ratings, 92.3% were within 1 grade. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The use of digitized radiographic images does not appear to impact the radiographic assessments of canine hip joint conformation made by consultant radiologists. Compared with conventional radiographs, the use of digitized radiographic images decreases storage space requirements and enables more rapid reporting of assessment results for individual dogs.     

AN INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUE FOR DISPLAYING THREE DIMENSIONAL RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF SYNOVIAL STRUCTURES IN THE EQUINE DISTAL LIMB

Radiography is the most commonly applied imaging modality in equine practice and forms an essential part of the diagnostic work-up of lame horses. Radiographic signs of musculoskeletal pathology are frequently localized at sites of soft tissue attachment, which are often not clearly visible on radiographs. Different lesions carry different prognoses and require a variety of treatments, and a good knowledge of the position of the synovial structures in the distal limb of the horse is essential for practitioners in the interpretation of radiographs. This study describes a new technique for creating three-dimensional (3D) models of the synovial structures and superimposing them onto radiographs for the purpose of teaching radiographic anatomy. A set of standard radiographs was acquired of the metacarpophalangeal and the distal interphalangeal joints of a fresh cadaver leg while the leg was positioned in a material-testing machine to mimic the weight-bearing horse. Computed tomography of the same regions was performed after injection of negative contrast medium into the joints. 3D reconstructions of the joints were created using grayscale thresholding and polynomial surface meshing in Mimics. The resulting 3D reconstructions were superimposed on top of the radiographs using Adobe^© Photoshop^© CS3 Extended, thus allowing the visualization of the joint anatomy in relation to the bone on all projections. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows synovial structures to be visualized on radiographs where they are normally indistinct, which will serve as a teaching aid for anatomy.     

SILVER IMPREGNATION IN SITU

In evaluating radiographs of the limb joints and head, students encounter difficulty where superimposition occurs. By replacing calcium with silver salts in the bone, enhanced radiopacity can be produced. In this study, silver impregnation was used to increase the radiopacity of individual carpal and tarsal bones, selected bones of the skull and the sinuses, and guttural pouch of the horse. This provides an interpretation aid for teaching radiographic anatomy of these regions.     

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANATOMY OF THE DISTAL EXTREMITY OF THE HORSE

X-ray computed tomography (CT) is an imaging tool that is becoming increasingly available for use in veterinary medicine. Advantages, including depiction of detailed cross-sectional anatomy, improved contrast resolution, and computer reformatting, make it a potentially valuable diagnostic technique. Veterinary application of CT has been primarily limited to use in small animals. Current reports describe the technique for use in the horse, but there are no published studies correlating serial CT images with equine cross-sectional anatomy. A study of the distal extremity of the horse was undertaken to facilitate interpretation of images produced using CT. Transverse CT images of the distal forelimb of equine cadavers were evaluated relative to gross anatomic dissection. Resolution of bone architecture in transverse plane images was satisfactory, but soft-tissue' resolution, although satisfactory for visualization of major structures, was relatively poor, probably due to lack of interposed fat and insufficient differences in physical density and atomic number. Thus it appears in the equine distal limb that CT may be most useful for evaluation of complex bone abnormalities.     

Radiographic examination of the equine foot

A complete radiographic examination of the equine foot consists of properly exposed, processed, and positioned radiographs. For radiographic interpretation, in addition to knowing radiographic signs of disease, a knowledge of normal radiographic anatomy and possible insignificant anatomic variations is necessary.     

动物解剖学多媒体技术和传统教学方法的实践应用

动物解剖学作为传统的动物医学基础课,其内容较为枯燥单调,在长期的教学建设中,如何对动物解剖学的教学方法进行改革等问题,一直困扰着动物解剖教学工作者。中国农业大学动物医学院的教师们在动物解剖学教学过程中,将传统的教学方式和多媒体技术很好地结合起来,并进行了积极的探索与实践,取得了良好的教学效果。     

A XERORADIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE DEVELOPING QUARTERHORSE FOREDIGIT AND METACARPOPHALANGEAL REGION FROM SIX TO TWELVE MONTHS OF AGE

The purpose of the project was to provide a reference for radiographic anatomy of the developing equine foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region. Using xeroradiographic techniques, both foredigits and metacarpophalangeal regions of six Quarter Horse foals were radiographed at 1 day of age and then at 2-week intervals until the foals were 6 weeks old. The foals were then radiographed at 4-week intervals until they were 12 months old. The period from birth to 6 months has been described in a previous report. This paper deals with the period from 6 to 12 months of age. Lateromedial and dorsopalmar xeroradiographs of each foredigit and metacarpophalangeal region and a dorsal 65° proximal-palmarodistal oblique view of the distal part of the digit were made at each examination. Foals were weighed and were measured at the withers immediately prior to each examination. Representative xeroradiographs were selected and appropriately labeled to demonstrate normal radiographic anatomy of these regions. Earliest radiographic visualization of distal epiphyseal ossification in metacarpal 2 and metacarpal 4 was extremely variable and ranged from 4 to 38 weeks. It was not possible to determine accurately the ages at which distal physes of the small metacarpal bones closed. In one foal, three of four of these physes were closed at 26 weeks, while in another foal, none had closed when last radiographed at 54 weeks. Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the middle phalanx ranged from 18 to 30 weeks (mean = 26 weeks). Radiographic closure of the proximal physis of the proximal phalanx ranged from 22 to 38 weeks (mean = 30 weeks). Radiographic closure of the distal physis of metacarpal 3 ranged from 18 to 38 weeks (mean = 29 weeks).