Invertebrate control of soil organic matter stability

 The control of soil organic matter (SOM) stability by soil invertebrates is evaluated in terms of their impact on the inherent recalcitrance, accessibility to microorganisms, and interaction with stabilizing substances of organic compounds. Present knowledge on internal (ingestion and associated transformations) and external (defecation, constructions) control mechanisms of soil invertebrates is also reviewed. Soil animals contribute to the stabilization and destabilization of SOM by simultaneously affecting chemical, physical, and microbial processes over several orders of magnitude. A very important aspect of this is that invertebrates at higher trophic levels create feedback mechanisms that modify the spatio-temporal framework in which the micro-food web affects SOM stability. Quantification of non-trophic and indirect effects is thus essential in order to understand the long-term effects of soil biota on SOM turnover. It is hypothesized that the activities of invertebrates which lead to an increase in SOM stability partly evolved as an adaptation to the need for increasing the suitability of their soil habitat. Several gaps in knowledge are identified: food selection and associated changes in C pools, differential effects on SOM turnover, specific associations with microorganisms, effects on dissolution and desorption reactions, humus-forming and humus-degrading processes in gut and faeces, and the modification of invertebrate effects by environmental variables. Future studies must not be confined merely to a mechanistic analysis of invertebrate control of SOM stability, but also pay considerable attention to the functional and evolutionary aspects of animal diversity in soil. This alone will allow an integration of biological expertise in order to develop new strategies of soil management which can be applied under a variety of environmental conditions. Received: 6 April 1999     

土壤—景观定量模型研究进展

传统土壤调查和制图建立在调查者经验思维基础上,目前对高精度土壤信息的大量需求对传统技巧性土壤调查方式提出了挑战,量化的土壤———景观模型日益受到土壤科学家的重视。近十年内世界各国开展了大量研究,试图将数字地形分析,GIS技术和土壤调查技术相结合,通过对景观信息的分析预测土壤信息。本文简要阐述土壤景观模型的基本原理和定义,对线性回归、回归树、判别分析、模糊聚类、地统计学、模糊推理和规则网络等模型的研究进展进行总结。在此基础上讨论了模型的发展方向和应用前景。     

Linking the abundance of aspen with soil faunal communities and rates of belowground processes within single stands of mixed aspen–black spruce

The occurrence of aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) patches within stands dominated by black spruce (Picea mariana Mill. BSP) has been shown to increase litter decomposition and nutrient cycling rates by improving soil physical and chemical properties. It is well known, however, that these processes are also influenced by the structure of the soil biota, but this factor has received less attention. In this study, relationships between forest floor properties and soil invertebrates were studied along black spruce–trembling aspen gradients in three stands of the eastern boreal forest of Canada. The forest floor layer of 36 plots differing in aspen basal area was sampled and analyzed to determine physical and chemical properties, the rates of decomposition of standard substrates, net N mineralization, as well as microbial basal respiration and metabolic quotient. Soil invertebrates were also collected using funnel-extraction and pitfall trapping methods. Based on redundancy analyses, we found that forest floor properties, the abundance and composition of soil invertebrates, and the rates of belowground processes changed along the spruce–aspen gradient. The increase in aspen basal area was associated with a reduction in forest floor thickness, moisture content and microbial biomass, and with an increase in the concentration of nutrients. It was also accompanied by changes in soil faunal communities, as soil invertebrates were associated with specific soil properties. In general, macroinvertebrates (i.e., Lumbricidae, Formicidae, Carabidae, Staphylinidae and Gastropoda) were related to the nutrient-rich forest floor associated with aspen, whereas microarthropods and Enchytraeidae tended to be negatively related to aspen basal area. According to mixed linear models, decomposition rates of standard substrates and net ammonification significantly increased along the spruce–aspen gradient. Given the functional significance of macroinvertebrates in soils, these results suggest that aspen favours the elaboration of a macrofaunal community, which in turn accelerates the rate of soil processes by having either direct or indirect influence on microbial activity. Moreover, this study shows that the changes in soil processes and in the biodiversity of soil organisms related to the presence of mixed stands can operate only in the immediate surroundings of a given tree species. Therefore, coarse-scale tree species mixing in a forest stand may have a different effect on soil biodiversity and soil processes than fine-scale mixing.     

The impacts of invasive rodents on island invertebrates

The widespread invasive rodents Rattus norvegicus, R. rattus, R. exulans and Mus musculus have been implicated in the decline and extinction of hundreds of island endemic vertebrates, but their effects on island invertebrates are less well-known. Here I present the first global review of the subject, which confirms that large-bodied invertebrates are most at risk from these rodents, and that although a disproportionate number of studies (69%) are from New Zealand, rodent-invertebrate impacts are geographically widespread. Mechanisms of impact are both direct (mediated by predation) and indirect (involving intermediary species). Some studies also suggest knock-on effects on ecosystem properties, and given the diverse ecological functions of invertebrates (as detritivores, primary consumers, predators, prey and pollinators), I suggest that an understanding of the interactions between invasive rodents and invertebrates in island ecosystems is essential for effective conservation management. Currently many reported impacts are unquantified, come from uncontrolled and unreplicated designs, or rely on time-series with inadequate baseline data. In addition to basic improvements in study design, this review highlights a need for studies which investigate mechanisms of impact, or impacts across trophic levels.     

Soil microbial communities resistant to changes in plant functional group composition

The soil community is an often ignored part of research which links plant biodiversity and ecosystem functioning despite their influence on numerous functions such as decomposition and nutrient cycling. Few consistent patterns have been detected that link plant and soil community composition. We used a removal experiment in a northern Canadian grassland to examine the effects of plant functional group identity on soil microbial community structure and function. Plant functional groups (graminoids, legumes and forbs) were removed independently from plots for five growing seasons (2003-2007) and in the fifth year effects on the soil microbial community were examined using substrate-induced respiration (SIR - a measure of metabolic diversity) and phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA - a measure of microbial community composition). Removal treatments were also crossed with both a fertilizer treatment and a fungicide treatment to determine if effects of functional group identity on the soil community were context dependent. Plant functional group identity had almost no effect on the soil microbial community as measured by either SIR or PLFA. Likewise, soil properties including total carbon, pH, moisture and nutrients showed a limited response to plant removals in the fifth year after removals. We found a direct effect of fertilizer on the soil community, with fertilized plots having decreased metabolic diversity, with a decreased ability to metabolize amino acids and a phenolic acid, but there was no direct soil microbial response to fungicide. We show that in this northern Canadian grassland the soil microbial community is relatively insensitive to changes in plant functional group composition, and suggest that in northern ecosystems, where plant material is only slowly incorporated into the soil, five growing seasons may be insufficient to detect the impact of a changing plant community on the soil microbes.     

水土保持措施及其减水减沙效益分析

水土流失已经和正在蚕食着人们赖以生存的宝贵的水土资源，如何有效地控制水土流失日益受到社会各界和科学家们的广泛关注。中国在水土保持方面创造了许多颇具特色的水土保持措施，如：生物林草措施、耕作措施和水土保持工程措施。该文总结了目前所采用的主要水土保持措施类型。采用坡度、坡长校正公式将数据转化为具有可比性的量值(标准小区)，定量分析了各种水土保持措施对于减少径流和土壤侵蚀产沙的效果，即治理措施的减水减沙效益，为小流域土壤侵蚀预报、水土保持措施的优化及合理配置、优化土地利用结构等提供参考依据。     

土壤对污染物的缓冲性研究

阐述了土壤缓冲性概念的演变,提出从缓冲性角度研究土壤污染的思路及体系。通过几种土壤对Cu、Pb、Cd、F缓冲性测定,分析了影响因素;由土壤pH值、粘粒、碳酸钙、有机质、腐殖酸、外源镉等一系列单因素试验,研究了各因素与缓冲性量变规律;通过等温吸附、络合特性、溶解性、形态分布,吸附动力学试验,研究了缓冲机制;还进行了各因素综合影响试验及通径分析。在试验研究基础上,为土壤污染的防治、调控、预测预报提出了科学依据。     

Soil phenolics in a continuously mono‐cropped cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) system and their effects on cucumber seedling growth and soil microbial communities

Phenolic compounds have been implicated as autotoxins of cucumber under mono‐cropping management systems. Inhibition of cucumber growth may result from direct uptake of phenolic compounds or an indirect effect resulting from changes in soil microflora. In the present study we monitored the dynamics of soil phenolics in a continuously mono‐cropped cucumber system and then assessed the effects of these compounds on soil microbial communities. Six phenolic compounds were identified in all soil samples in the continuously mono‐cropping system. Soil total phenolic content increased extensively in the first cropping, but maintained a relatively stable level in the following croppings. Amendments of phenolics at the concentration detected in the soil showed inhibitory effects on cucumber seedling growth and stimulatory effects on soil dehydrogenase activity, soil microbial biomass carbon content and soil bacteria and fungi community sizes. Amendments of phenolics caused shifts in soil microbial community structures and soil bacteria and fungi communities had different responses. Our results suggested that direct phytotoxic effects of phenolics on cucumber probably did not happen in continuous mono‐cropping systems, but they might indirectly influence cucumber performance by changing soil microbial communities.     

加氧灌溉与土壤通气性研究进展

水、肥、气、热是保障土壤肥力的四大要素,传统的灌溉方式往往忽视了气这一重要因素.土壤通气性不足,四个因素之间的平衡被打破,土壤理化性质变差,对作物生长造成不利影响,进而引起减产.良好的土壤通气性是作物正常生长发育的保证.加氧灌溉通过采用合理的方法改善土壤通气状况,协调土壤四大要素之间的关系,提高土壤肥力,满足作物生长的需要.研究表明,加氧灌溉可提高作物产量、改善作物品质.本文从根区低氧胁迫的影响分析人手,评述了土壤通气性的量化指标、测算方法和控制标准,综述了加氧灌溉技术及其应用,总结了加氧灌溉研究中存在的问题,探讨了加氧灌溉对土壤通气性的改善作用,提出了加氧灌溉与土壤通气性研究展望,以期为今后的研究提供参考.     

城市土壤研究进展与中国城市土壤生态保护研究

加速城市化发展已成为我国经济、社会发展的必然,但随着城市化的发展,城市土壤环境质量急剧恶化,城市土壤已成为中国土壤学和城市化问题研究中亟需关注的领域。在城市化进程中大规模的工程建设、大量废弃物的排放和频繁的交通运输等多种因素的综合作用下,城市土壤结构被破坏,土壤剖面层次混乱,土壤化学性质变异加大,土壤生物多样性降低,土壤肥力水平下降。为减缓城市活动施加于土壤生态系统的负面影响,当前的城市土壤研究应首先在样点城市通过"城-郊-乡"生态样带来开展城市化土壤环境效应的定量研究,重点进行城市土壤基础信息数据库的构建和城市土壤的分类与制图,加强城市土壤环境修复技术和城市废弃物处理技术的研究及应用。同时,积极运用景观生态学原理,进行合理规划,构建城市绿色空间网络体系。为从根本上实现城市土壤资源的有效保护和持续利用,应加强宣传有关土壤知识,使广大公众积极参与城市土壤的保护,尤其使城市管理者相信在城市建筑和规划活动中有必要利用土壤学研究成果。     

13种土壤硝化过程中亚硝态氮的累积与土壤性质的关系

通过室内培养（土壤水分60％WHC,温度25℃）方法对不同土壤（13种）硝化过程中亚硝态氮的累积进行了研究,并用通径分析方法探讨了土壤亚硝态氮峰值浓度和累积总量与土壤性质的关系,为加强氮素管理、减少亚硝态氮的累积提供理论依据。结果表明,在培养过程中,各供试土壤亚硝态氮的峰值浓度相差较大,且均出现在施肥5-7d,以褐土最高为146．09mg·kg^-1,其次是淤灌土为114．03mg·kg^-1;黑土、黄壤和棕壤在培养过程中几乎未检测到亚硝态氮。亚硝态氮累积总量以褐土、淤灌土最大,分别为350．82和334．51mg·kg^-1;水稻土和砖红壤最小,分别为7．58和13．06mg·k^-1。土壤pH、粘粒、无定形铁通过直接和间接效应成为影响土壤亚硝态氮峰值浓度、累积总量的主要因素,而土壤脲酶活性对这两个因变量的作用均很微弱;就通径分析的直接效应而言,有机质和全氮对土壤亚硝态氮峰值浓度、累积总量的影响最为显著,但其直接效应在很大程度上被其他因素的间接效应所抵消;土壤CEC对土壤亚硝态氮峰值浓度的作用也非常显著。此外,土壤络合态铝、络合态铁虽然对这两个因变量的直接效应不明显,但通过其他因素的综合作用也对这两个因变量起到了一定的影响作用。     

Size matters: What have we learnt from microcosm studies of decomposer fungus–invertebrate interactions?

The ongoing research ‘boom’ in soil ecology has been advanced by a widespread use of laboratory experiments to investigate mechanisms that could not be unravelled with field observations alone. Interactions between soil fungi and invertebrates have received considerable attention due to their trophic and functional importance in belowground systems. Saprotrophic cord-forming basidiomycete fungi are major agents of primary decomposition in woodland ecosystems, where they are also an important source of nutrition for fungal-feeding soil invertebrates. A plethora of microcosm experiments, with their main benefit being that they enable most variables to be kept constant while just a few are manipulated, have provided detailed insights into the ecology of fungus–invertebrate interactions. This review identifies important trends from this body of work (including a meta-analysis of grazing effects on fungal growth and wood decomposition) and explores the extent to which these patterns are supported by the few related experiments conducted in more complex mesocosm and field systems. Grazing in microcosms reduced fungal growth and increased decomposition, but with interaction-specific magnitude, reflecting invertebrate feeding preferences for different fungi. Macro-invertebrates (woodlice and millipedes) had stronger effects than micro- (e.g. nematodes) and meso- (e.g. collembola) invertebrates. This greater grazing pressure generally increased enzyme activities beneath mycelia during interactions in which wood decay was increased. Top-down effects of fungal-feeding can be extrapolated to more complex systems, but only for macro-invertebrates, particularly woodlice. Soil enzyme activity was stimulated, in microcosms and more complex systems, by short-term or low intensity grazing, but reduced when large areas of mycelium were removed by high-intensity grazing. Effects of differential fungal palatability on invertebrate populations are evident in microcosm studies of collembola. These bottom-up effects can be extrapolated more broadly than top-down effects; fungal community dominance determined collembola abundance and diversity, in mesocosms, and woodlouse abundance in the field. Using, as a case study, a series of experiments conducted at a range of scales, mechanisms underlying potential climate change effects on grazing interactions and decomposition are also explored. Biotic effects on decomposer community functioning are heterogeneous, depending on fungal dominance and the density of key macro-invertebrate taxa.     

太湖县水土流失的危害及其治理问题

阐述了太湖县水土流失的危害和对人民生活及经济活动的影响,总结了10余年来水保工作情况,揭示出存在的一些问题,并对水土保持与脱贫致富工作进行了安排。     

Soil Bulk Density Estimation Methods: A Review

Measurement of soil bulk density is important for understanding the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Accurate and rapid soil bulk density measurement techniques play a significant role in agricultural experimental research. This review is a comprehensive summary of existing measurement methods and evaluates their advantages, disadvantages, potential sources of error, and directions for future development. These techniques can be broadly categorised as direct and indirect methods. Direct methods include core, clod, and excavation sampling, whereas indirect methods include the radiation and regression approaches. The core method is most widely used, but it is time consuming and difficult to use for sampling multiple soil depths. The size of the coring cylinder used, operator experience, sampling depth, and in-situ soil moisture content significantly affect its accuracy. The clod method is suitable for use with heavy clay soils, and its accuracy is dependent on equipment calibration, drying time, and operator experience, but the process is complicated and time consuming. Excavation techniques are most commonly used to evaluate the bulk density of forest soils, but have major limitations as they cannot be used in soils with large pores and their measurement accuracy is strongly influenced by soil texture and the type of analysis selected. The indirect methods appear to have greater accuracy than direct approaches, but have higher costs, are more complex, and require greater operator experience. One such approach uses gamma radiation, and its accuracy is strongly influenced by soil depth. Regression methods are economical as they can make indirect measurements, but these depend on good, quality data of soil texture and organic matter content and geographical and climatic properties. Also, like most of the other approaches, its accuracy decreases with sampling depth.     

高速公路建设中侵蚀环境及水土流失特征的研究

高速公路水土流失属典型的人为加速侵蚀类型,水土流失类型、程度和强度与主体工程建设有直接的因果关系,侵蚀环境由侵蚀动力系统、侵蚀对象和侵蚀地貌单元3部分组成;高速公路水土流失在空间上表现为沿高速公路呈离散型分布,在时间上与主体工程具有高度同一性。在此基础上,通过对重庆市已建、在建和拟建高速公路实地调查和现场量测,对高速公路水土流失防治责任范围内的侵蚀地貌单元及其水土流失特征进行了系统的分类研究,对高速公路沿线不良地质结构稳定性特征及关键控制因子进行了分类探讨,最后也讨论了高速公路沿线环境敏感区特点,以期为高速公路水土流失预测、水土保持措施布局及水土流失监测提供理论支持。     

Assessing the impact of agricultural forage crops on soil biodiversity and abundance

Maintaining soil biodiversity and function is key to maintaining soil health, nutrient cycling and decomposition. Different forage species have variable concentrations of essential nutrients and rooting patterns, potentially affecting soil biology and soil–plant–animal interactions. Our study compared the effect of growing different forage crops on soil faunal diversity and abundance. Plots of chicory (Cichorium intybus), red clover (Trifolium pratense), white clover (Trifolium repens) or perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) were established in 2009 and maintained over a four year period. Soil faunal samples were taken, including soil mesofauna, nematodes and earthworms, at the end of this period in autumn 2012 and spring 2013. Significant differences were found between the forages for a number of biological groups, as well as some seasonal differences; overall earthworm abundance and biomass was higher within the white clover treatment, specifically anecic earthworms. Nematode functional groups were found to differ, with greater numbers of fungal feeders in the clovers and chicory treatments, whilst the herbivores had the greatest abundances in the two ryegrass treatments. Overall the microarthropod order abundances did not differ, however two collembolan superfamilies did show differences between treatments with the detritivorous Poduromorpha having a higher abundance in the clovers and chicory treatment and the herbivorous Symphypleona had a higher abundance in the ryegrass treatment. Relatively little is known about the links between soil biology and the effects of plant type because of the complex nature of soil, however here we have begun to reveal some of these linkages. Overall, the findings indicate a relationship between ryegrass and herbivorous invertebrates, whilst the other forages have a stronger relationship with decomposer invertebrates; changing the dominance within the soil food web dependent on forage type.     

Altitudinal distribution of soil fauna in the Khibiny Massif

Data on the taxonomic and trophic composition, population density, and biomass of invertebrates in the soils of the main mountain vegetation zones of the Khibiny Mountains—taiga, subalpine, and alpine—are obtained. The degree of similarity between soil faunal complexes in different vegetation zones within the studied slope is higher than that between zonal biocenoses of Murmansk oblast. The mountain tundra zone differs from the zonal tundra in a higher population density and taxonomic diversity of invertebrates, which are similar to those in the northern taiga podzols. At the same time, invertebrate complexes in the mountain taiga zone are poorer than those in the zonal plain taiga soils. The analysis of invertebrate taxa present in all the studied mountain vegetation zones demonstrates similar effects of the altitudinal and latitudinal zonality on the species composition of invertebrates. A conclusion is made about a higher functional activity of saprotrophs in the high-humus soils enriched in biogenic elements of the Khibiny Mountains in comparison with the functional activity of saprotrophs in the zonal plain podzols.     

土壤矿物对有机质的吸附与固定机制研究进展

鉴于土壤有机质在生态系统及碳储存方面的重要性,关于土壤矿物对土壤有机质的吸附与固定机理方面的研究越来越受到了学术界的广泛关注。本文综述了近年来报道较多的土壤矿物对土壤有机质的吸附机制,以及主要影响因素。在众多矿物类型中,水合铁、铝氧化物及黏土矿物对有机质的吸附性较强,配体交换、络合、氢键、阳离子桥接、缩合及范德华力作用是土壤矿物与有机质之间的主要作用机制。土壤pH是影响矿物表面电荷及吸附位点的关键因素,进而影响矿物对有机质的吸附。土壤矿物表面的有机质含量对其继续吸附有机质具有一定的影响。吸附态有机质大多呈层状结构,越接近矿物表面的有机质与土壤矿物的结合越紧密。土壤有机质的稳定性受有机质与矿物间的作用力影响,一般而言,以化学键合吸附在矿物表面的有机质最稳定,其次为直接与矿物表面作用的电子"供体-受体"机制,范德华力和静电作用稳定性较差。近年来,随着分析设备和技术的进步,一些新的表征与探测方法(如热重分析、差示扫描量热法、傅里叶转换红外光谱、扫描电子显微镜、原子力显微镜、扫描透射X射线显微镜、中子散射技术等)被用于"矿物-有机质"结合机制的研究中,这些新手段毫无疑问会帮助更好地认识矿物与有机质间的作用机理。关于微生物在矿物吸附有机质、"矿物-有机质"复合体形成和演化过程中所起的作用,研究相对较少,但很明显这是至关重要的。     

Biochar effects on soil biota - A review

Soil amendment with biochar is evaluated globally as a means to improve soil fertility and to mitigate climate change. However, the effects of biochar on soil biota have received much less attention than its effects on soil chemical properties. A review of the literature reveals a significant number of early studies on biochar-type materials as soil amendments either for managing pathogens, as inoculant carriers or for manipulative experiments to sorb signaling compounds or toxins. However, no studies exist in the soil biology literature that recognize the observed large variations of biochar physico-chemical properties. This shortcoming has hampered insight into mechanisms by which biochar influences soil microorganisms, fauna and plant roots. Additional factors limiting meaningful interpretation of many datasets are the clearly demonstrated sorption properties that interfere with standard extraction procedures for soil microbial biomass or enzyme assays, and the confounding effects of varying amounts of minerals. In most studies, microbial biomass has been found to increase as a result of biochar additions, with significant changes in microbial community composition and enzyme activities that may explain biogeochemical effects of biochar on element cycles, plant pathogens, and crop growth. Yet, very little is known about the mechanisms through which biochar affects microbial abundance and community composition. The effects of biochar on soil fauna are even less understood than its effects on microorganisms, apart from several notable studies on earthworms. It is clear, however, that sorption phenomena, pH and physical properties of biochars such as pore structure, surface area and mineral matter play important roles in determining how different biochars affect soil biota. Observations on microbial dynamics lead to the conclusion of a possible improved resource use due to co-location of various resources in and around biochars. Sorption and thereby inactivation of growth-inhibiting substances likely plays a role for increased abundance of soil biota. No evidence exists so far for direct negative effects of biochars on plant roots. Occasionally observed decreases in abundance of mycorrhizal fungi are likely caused by concomitant increases in nutrient availability, reducing the need for symbionts. In the short term, the release of a variety of organic molecules from fresh biochar may in some cases be responsible for increases or decreases in abundance and activity of soil biota. A road map for future biochar research must include a systematic appreciation of different biochar-types and basic manipulative experiments that unambiguously identify the interactions between biochar and soil biota.     

The indirect effect of above-ground herbivory on collembola populations is not mediated by changes in soil water content

Above-ground aphid herbivory of a shared host plant results in increased collembola populations within the rhizosphere. Three mechanisms potentially underpin this effect: honeydew deposition, aphid-induced reduction in root biomass and altered soil water content (as a result of root reduction inhibiting plant water uptake). This study focuses on the third mechanism, altered soil water content. This has the potential to influence collembola populations as, like most soil invertebrates, these organisms are highly susceptible to humidity levels. The indirect effects of leaf chewers (grasshoppers), phloem feeders (aphids) and manual (artificial) defoliation on soil water content, and hence on collembola population abundance, were compared. The different defoliation treatments significantly affected root biomass but not soil water content, and only aphid herbivory increased collembola abundance. Altered soil water content is unlikely to be the mechanism responsible for the increased collembola populations. The study demonstrated a strong negative relationship between soil water content and collembola abundance, confirming that soil moisture is an important factor in determining where collembola are found within the soil. The results also suggest that collembola have a higher tolerance for dry than for wet conditions.