Prediction of existing gully erosion in vineyard parcels of the NE Spain: a logistic modelling approach

This paper presents a study of determining factors and a method to predict the existence of gully erosion in vineyard parcels. The Alt Penedès-Anoia region (Catalonia, NE Spain), mainly dedicated to the cropping of vineyards for high quality wine production, was selected as the case study area. Single factors related to the existence of gully erosion were determined by means of statistical tests (Student's t-test and chi-square). The existence of gully erosion was predicted by means of a multivariate procedure. A stepwise selection of variables (relief, soil, land use/management characteristics) was performed, which allowed the identification of factors that present a significant relationship with the existence of gully erosion. The selected factors, slope degree and planar slope form, were considered as independent variables in a logistic regression of binary response. The model computes the probability that gullies exist in given vineyard parcels, and it can be implemented in a raster-based geographical information system (GIS). The assessment of the model in 52 parcels, different from the training data set, yielded an overall accuracy of 84.6%. The predictive model can be applied for areas with similar conditions, but the modelling approach can be applied in other different areas.     

Geomorphological investigation on gully erosion in the Rift Valley and the northern highlands of Ethiopia

Gully erosion phenomena are very common in Ethiopia. They affect large areas with different morphological, pedological and climatic characteristics. The amount of soil loss due to gullying has become a very serious problem in the recent decades as it was associated to remarkable depletion of cultivated land. Field investigations on gully morphology and its genetic processes were carried out in two study areas of Ethiopia, representative of different geo-environmental conditions: the Lakes Region in the Rift portion north of Shashamene and the area surrounding the town of Mekele in Tigray.Two main types of gullies were identified on the basis of their morphological and hydraulic geometry characteristics: (1) discontinuous gullies which generally develop on low gradient slopes (1–5° on average) and the hydraulic radius of which increases from an upstream minimum to a maximum, at approximately their mid length, and decreases again to a relative minimum at their downstream end; and (2) stream gullies, formed by deep erosion processes typically migrating upslope. In order to investigate the main causes originating the different types of gullies, shear stress data were collected in the field from their hydraulic geometry. Hypotheses on the mechanisms responsible for both discontinuous and stream gullies development and for their different characteristics are discussed considering the pattern of shear stress variation in the downstream direction.     

Identification of vulnerable areas for gully erosion under different scenarios of land abandonment in Southeast Spain

Abandonment of agricultural land is one of the main changes in Mediterranean land use. To mitigate runoff and erosion from abandoned land, it is necessary to identify locations that are vulnerable to erosion as a result of land abandonment. The objective of our study was to identify vulnerable areas for gully erosion using different scenarios of land abandonment in Southeast Spain. The study area was the Carcavo basin, a semi-arid catchment in the province of Murcia (Southeast Spain). A preliminary field survey confirmed the assumption that abandoned fields have more gully erosion compared to cultivated fields. This can be explained by the quicker concentration of runoff on abandoned land due to crust formation and reduced surface storage capacity. Next we simulated the spatial dynamics of land abandonment with a spatially explicit land use change model for the period 2004 to 2015 for four different land use change scenarios. The results of the simulation were used to identify vulnerable areas for gully erosion by a simple GIS-model based on the controlling factors of gully erosion. The potentially vulnerable areas for gully erosion increased for the different scenarios ranging from 18 ha to 176 ha. Most of the vulnerable areas are located around channel heads or along channel walls. The combination of more gully erosion on abandoned fields and an expected increase of land abandonment are potentially a big problem in relation to land degradation and reservoir sedimentation. The identification of vulnerable areas enables soil conservationists and engineers to mitigate gully erosion by applying preventive conservation practices.     

Assessment of gully erosion susceptibility using different DEM-derived topographic factors in the black soil region of Northeast China

As a primary sediment source, gully erosion leads to severe land degradation and poses a threat to food and ecological security. Therefore, identification of susceptible areas is critical to the prevention and control of gully erosion. This study aimed to identify areas prone to gully erosion using four machine learning methods with derived topographic attributes. Eight topographic attributes (elevation, slope aspect, slope degree, catchment area, plan curvature, profile curvature, stream power index, and topographic wetness index) were derived as feature variables controlling gully occurrence from digital elevation models with four different pixel sizes (5.0 m, 12.5 m, 20.0 m, and 30.0 m). A gully inventory map of a small agricultural catchment in Heilongjiang, China, was prepared through a combination of field surveys and satellite imagery. Each topographic attribute dataset was randomly divided into two portions of 70% and 30% for calibrating and validating four machine learning methods, namely random forest (RF), support vector machines (SVM), artificial neural network (ANN), and generalized linear models (GLM). Accuracy (ACC), area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), root mean square error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE) were calculated to assess the performance of the four machine learning methods in predicting spatial distribution of gully erosion susceptibility (GES). The results suggested that the selected topographic attributes were capable of predicting GES in the study catchment area. A pixel size of 20.0 m was optimal for all four machine learning methods. The RF method described the spatial relationship between the feature variables and gully occurrence with the greatest accuracy, as it returned the highest values of ACC (0.917) and AUC (0.905) at a 20.0 m resolution. The RF was also the least sensitive to resolutions, followed by SVM (ACC = 0.781–0.891, AUC = 0.724–0.861) and ANN (ACC = 0.744–0.808, AUC = 0.649–0.847). GLM performed poorly in this study (ACC = 0.693–0.757, AUC = 0.608–0.703). Based on the spatial distribution of GES determined using the optimal method (RF + pixel size of 20.0 m), 16% of the study area has very high level susceptibility classes, whereas areas with high, moderate, and low levels of susceptibility make up approximately 24%, 30%, and 31% of the study area, respectively. Our results demonstrate that GES assessment with machine learning methods can successfully identify areas prone to gully erosion, providing reference information for future soil conservation plans and land management. In addition, pixel size (resolution) is the key consideration when preparing suitable datasets of feature variables for GES assessment.     

沟头高度和土壤质地对细沟溯源侵蚀特征和形态发育的影响

沟头溯源侵蚀是黄土高原主要的侵蚀方式之一.为研究细沟沟头高度和土壤质地对侵蚀产沙、沟头溯源侵蚀过程及沟道形态发育的影响,该研究采用不同沟头高度的沟头,在室内进行了一系列冲刷试验(流量为2、4和6 L/min).结果表明:1)随着沟头高度的增加,产沙率增加,土壤流失过程的波动程度也增加,且越易被侵蚀;2)对比不同土壤质地...     

Monitoring of gully erosion in the Central Ebro Basin by large-scale aerial photography taken from a remotely controlled blimp

Large deep gullies (Span. barrancos) are some of the most important sediment sources in the semi-arid environment of the Central Ebro Basin. They are incised into the Quaternary valley bottoms (Span. vales), which are characteristic landforms in this area. In the research project EPRODESERT ( valuation of cesses Leading to Land Degradation and ification under Extensified Farming Systems), the development of a large barranco system is being investigated by different methods, including documentation and monitoring by aerial photography.Geomorphological forms and processes, such as sheet wash, rill and gully erosion, cannot be documented sufficiently by conventional remote sensing methods. Spatial and temporal resolution of satellite sensors as well as of conventional aerial photography do not correspond to the scale and dynamics of geomorphological processes.With a specially designed hot-air blimp as a sensor platform, large-scale aerial photographs were obtained from the Barranco de las Lenas specifically aimed at the scientific demands (very high spatial and temporal resolution). The development of the gully is documented and its dynamics are evaluated by a sequence of six aerial photographs taken between 1995 and 1998.     

Method to predict cropland ephemeral gully erosion

Erosion of farmland due to concentrated flow is very severe on many unprotected fields across the United States. Small channels can turn into large gullies if not controlled. These small channels are routinely obliterated by tillage of the field and other routine farm operations only to be reformed again. Opposing slopes adjacent to an ephemeral gully allow runoff to reestablish a channel in approximately the same location. Since the 1960s, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) has been used to estimate rill and sheet erosion. This paper describes the Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model (EGEM). EGEM is a modification of the Agricultural Research Service Ephemeral Gully Erosion Estimate (EGEE) computer model to meet the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) needs. Limited field data obtained by NRCS were used to validate the single event component of EGEM. This paper presents a summary of these studies. There were no data available at the time of the model development to validate the average annual concept of the model. ARS conducted validation studies for the EGEE model.     

Slope and rainfall effects on the volume of sediment yield by gully erosion in the Souar lithologic formation (Tunisia)

The Souar lithologic formation in semi-arid Tunisia is undergoing severe gully erosion which is threatening soil and water resources. Soil conservation strategies have focused more on terracing than on gully control techniques, since the contribution of gully sediment yield in the overall soil loss from watersheds is unknown. The paper reports investigations into the sediment yield provided by head-cut as well as sidewall–floor erosion of first order gullies on gentle and steep slope catchments underlined by the Souar lithologic formation. We measured mean field sediment volumes evacuated by different headward reaches of 10 and 9 gullies located on gentle and steep slope catchments, respectively. Two equations between the length of the gully head cutting and the corresponding volume of evacuated sediment were established. The treatment with a Geographic Information System (Arc View) of air photographs of six flights from 1952 to 2000 allowed the calculation of the volume of sediment provided both by head cutting and gully sidewalls–floor erosion through the following up of gully extension in eight catchments during the five periods separating the dates of these flights. Total gully erosion was on average 1.66 m³ ha^− 1 year^− 1 for the gentle slopes and 5.603 m³ ha^− 1 year^− 1 for the steep slopes. Sidewalls–floor contribution in total erosion was on average 81.5% for the gentle slopes and 77.8% for the steep slopes. We found out that the mean annual rainfall resulting from 40 mm daily rainfall threshold explained better the variation of annual head cutting sediment yield for these five periods than any other annual rainfall resulting from lower daily rainfall thresholds. Two equations between these two variables were established both for gentle and steep slope catchments.     

Ephemeral gully erosion in northwestern Spain

This study aimed to describe types of ephemeral gullies and to determine their origin, evolution and importance as sediment sources in A Coruña province (northwest Spain). Ephemeral gullies and/or rills have been measured in a representative sample of medium-textured soils, most prone to crusting, developed over basic schist. This sample consisted of 11 small sites, ranging from 0.63 to 7.34 ha. A case study of concentrated (rill+gully) erosion in a 0.47-ha catchment with coarse-textured soils developed over granite was also reported. The mean slope of the sites studied ranged from 6.1% to 16.8%. Main periods when soil surface was poorly covered were late spring (maize seedbeds) and late autumn–early winter (grassland and winter cereal seedbeds). Case studies where fields were left bare in winter were also investigated. Soil incision and channel formation were observed even with relatively low rainfall intensities when the soil surface was sealed, but also after a single short intense rainfall event on recently tilled surfaces. Concentrated erosion took place mainly on seedbeds and newly tilled soils in late spring and by autumn or early winter, but gullies also appeared in other seasons when the soil surface was left bare. In most of the cases studied, ephemeral gully erosion caused significant soil losses, ranging between 2 and 5 m³/ha for a single season to locally, over 25 m³/ha. Gully development was significantly affected by agricultural operations, such as lineal elements often acting as initial axes of concentrated erosion. Main gullies tended to reappear at the same position.     

Time and scale of gully erosion in the Jedliczny Dol gully system, south-east Poland

Key catchments of the Roztocze loess area in south-east Poland have a great potential of revealing the history of long-term soil erosion and changes in land use. The knowledge of how and when soil erosion took place in the past helps one understand the impact of land use changes on the landscapes [Bork, H.-R., 1989. Soil erosion during the past Millennium in Central Europe and its significance within the geomorphodynamics of the Holocene. Catena 15, 121–131]. The Jedliczny Dol gully system near the town Zwierzyniec in south-east Poland was investigated by using detailed field stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating of charcoal and wood.In connection with new settlements which were established between the 14th and 16th centuries, arable land was cultivated and forests were used much more intensively. As a consequence, the loess soils were strongly eroded during heavy rainfalls. Up to 4 m of colluvial sediments were deposited in the gully system during the 15th and/or 16th centuries. The thickness of the colluvial sediments indicate severe erosion which might be related to excessive timber exploitation for the local glass and iron production. With the foundation of the so-called Ordinariat Zamoyski at the end of the 16th century, some parts of the area were presumably reforested. High pressure on the land at the beginning of the 19th century enabled a second main phase of gulling before 1900.Since 1890 at the latest, almost the whole catchment is used as a forest, however, concentrated runoff on compacted forest roads can still be high after heavy rainfalls.In loess areas soil erosion caused by intensive land use, triggered by heavy rainfalls, can change the landscape drastically. These changes will continue to influence how catchments react, even if land use gets less intensive again. This knowledge should be considered regarding future, sustainable land use and recent changes in land use in the south-eastern Polish loess regions.     

Accuracy of methods for field assessment of rill and ephemeral gully erosion

To properly assess soil erosion in agricultural areas, it is necessary to determine precisely the volume of ephemeral gullies and rills in the field by using direct measurement procedures. However, little information is available on the accuracy of the different methods used. The main purpose of this paper is to provide information for a suitable assessment of rill and ephemeral gully erosion with such direct measurement methods. To achieve this objective: a) the measurement errors associated to three methods used for field assessment of channel cross sectional areas are explored; b) the influence of the number of cross sections used per unit channel length on the assessment accuracy, is analysed and; c) the effect of the channel size and shape on measurement errors is examined. The three methods considered to determine the cross sectional areas were: the micro-topographic profile meter (1); the detailed measurement of section characteristic lengths with a tape (2); and the measurement of cross section width and depth with a tape (3). Five reaches of different ephemeral gully types 14.0 or 30.0 m long and a set of six 20.4 to 29.4 m long rill reaches were selected. On each gully reach, the cross sectional areas were measured using the three above mentioned methods, with a separation (s) between cross sections of 1 m. For rills, the cross sectional areas were measured with methods 1 and 3, with s = 2 m. Then, the corresponding total erosion volumes were computed. The volume calculated with method 1 with s = 1 m for gullies and s = 2 m for rills was taken as the reference method. For each channel, and for each one of the possible combinations of s and measurement method (m), the relative measurement error and the absolute value of the relative measurement error (E_sm^r and |E_sm^r|), defined with respect to the reference one, was calculated. |E_sm^r| much higher than 10% were obtained very easily, even for small s values and for apparently quasi prismatic channels. Channel size and shape had a great influence on measurement errors. In fact, the selection of the more suitable method for a certain gully shape and size seemed to be much more important than s, at least when s < 10 m. Method 1 always provided the most precise measurements, and its results were the less dependent on s. However, s must be < 5 m to guarantee an error smaller than 10%. Method 2 is not recommended, because it is difficult, time consuming and can lead to large errors. Method 3 seems to be enough for small, wide and shallow gullies, and for small rills, but only if s is shorter than 5 m. Results obtained after the analysis of rill measurement errors were similar to those of gullies. The analysis of E_sm^r and |E_sm^r| when calculating channel volumes using a unique representative cross section highlighted the importance of correctly selecting the adequate cross section. Due to the high error values that this method can entail, it is not considered as advisable whenever accurate erosion measurements are pursued.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区坡沟系统切沟侵蚀数值模拟

切沟侵蚀过程既是侵蚀输沙发生变化过程,也是其侵蚀地貌的发展演变过程,为了说明切沟形态随时空演化过程,应用质量守恒原理和理论分析方法,论述切沟侵蚀过程与形态发育模型实现的原理和过程,建立切沟侵蚀输沙微分方程、下切方程,并进行数值模拟.通过模拟计算,得到不同时刻和不同坡长下的切沟底部高程变化数据;经过与坡沟系统模型试验观测结果进行比较检验,沟深平均相对误差在15％以内,取得了较高的模拟精度.这表明建立的模型合理,模拟结果与实际切沟下切的动态变化过程相符,可以用于模拟切沟下切发育过程.     

Analysis of the influence of gully erosion in the flow pattern of catchment streams, Southeastern Brazil

The baseflow of tributaries to the Velhas River in the northwest region of Ouro Preto County (São Francisco Basin, Brazil) has been declining in the last years, without a simultaneous decrease in the water input. This can only be attributed to badly planned human activities, which result in soil crusting or compaction, erosion, among other types of impact, such as groundwater overexploitation and wetland drainage. Almost all of the study area has been eroded by hundreds of large-size gullies. In order to analyze the influence of erosion in the hydrological behavior of small streams, two similar and contiguous catchments were selected. The only remarkable difference between them is a gully that occupies circa 42% of one of the catchments (“eroded catchment”). Rainfall, flow rates and chemical data were obtained throughout a hydrological year and the results showed that the eroded catchment presented smaller baseflow rates and bigger but short-lived stormflows. This contrasting flow regime is attributed to the gully, which is causing the partial withdraw of the regolith and the exposure of weathered rock. As the regolith has smaller hydraulic conductivities and higher storage coefficients, the exposure of weathered rock on the gully floor explains the odd flow behavior of the eroded catchment. Other studies in the same region confirm the impact caused by the gullies. Thus, the superposition of many gullies can cause decrease of the baseflow and increase of the stormflow. As gullies are very common erosion features in Brazil, they should be much more studied in order to better understand this and other similar types of environmental impact.     

根系密度对黄土塬沟头溯源侵蚀产沙和形态演化过程的影响

为明确根系密度对黄土塬沟壑区沟头溯源侵蚀产沙和形态演化过程的影响,采用野外"人工模拟降雨+放水冲刷"试验方法,以裸地试验小区(CK)为对照,研究冰草根系密度试验小区(株行距:20 cm×20 cm,C1;15 cm×15 cm,C2;10 cm×10 cm,C3)的沟头溯源侵蚀产沙过程、沟头溯源距离、沟道下切深度及发育面积等特征。结果表明:1)与对照小区相比,草被小区(C1~C3)产沙量分别降低64.32%、70.31%、69.92%;冰草株行距为15 cm×15 cm时,减沙效益最大。2)对照小区沟头溯源侵蚀过程主要包括沟口形成、贴壁流侵蚀、跌水侵蚀和沟岸崩塌等;而草被小区沟头溯源侵蚀则由贴壁流侵蚀、跌水侵蚀和根土复合体崩塌导致,崩塌是草地沟头溯源的主要原因;各根系密度下沟头溯源距离与时间均呈极显著幂函数关系;与对照相比,草被小区沟头溯源距离缩短75.61%~78.87%。3)对照小区侵蚀沟纵断面呈阶梯形,存在缓冲平台,沟头近似矩形;草被小区则呈梯形和圆弧状。与对照相比,草被小区沟道平均下切深度加深1.64~1.92倍;沟道面积随根系密度增加而缩小,草被小区沟道面积较裸地缩小68.0%~74.0%。结果可为该区"固沟保塬"工作的实施提供科学参考。     

东北丘陵区沟蚀发展现状及影响因素分析

选取第一次全国水利普查土壤水蚀普查中吉林省梅河口市6个野外调查单元作为典型研究区,采用野外实地调查与地理信息技术相结合的方法,对东北低山丘陵区坡耕地沟蚀发展现状及影响因素进行调查分析。结果表明:(1)研究区6个调查单元总面积为142.9 hm2,侵蚀沟数量共93条,沟长共5 476 m,沟壑密度3.83 km km-2,总侵蚀量为4 575 m3。其中切沟沟长占总沟长的61.03%,侵蚀量占总侵蚀量的92.35%。(2)研究区沟蚀发展现状严峻,其中小杨乡、红梅镇、双兴乡和一座营镇沟蚀强度为剧烈,沟道密度分别为7.12、4.63、5.55和4.25 km km-2。牛心顶镇和海龙镇沟蚀强度分别为强烈和中度。(3)坡度是研究区坡耕地沟蚀发育发展的重要因子,与沟壑密度存在较强线性相关,相关系数为0.71(p0.05),在坡度大于8°时沟壑密度最大。(4)沟壑密度随坡长的增大而先增大后减小,在坡长200～299 m内最大,超过500 m后逐渐降低。(5)沟壑密度与流域长宽比具有较强的相关性,相关系数为0.83(p0.05),沟壑密度随流域长宽比的增大而减少。     

Evaluating gully erosion using Cs and Pb/Cs ratio in a reservoir catchment

Water erosion in the hilly areas of west China is the main process contributing to the overall sediment of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The impact of gully erosion in total sediment output has been mostly neglected. Our objective was to assess the sediment production and sediment sources at both the hillslope and catchment scales in the Yangjuangou reservoir catchment of the Chinese Loess Plateau, northwest China. Distribution patterns in sediment production caused by water erosion on hills and gully slopes under different land use types were assessed using the fallout ¹³⁷Cs technique. The total sediment production from the catchment was estimated by using the sediment record in a reservoir. Sediment sources and dominant water erosion processes were determined by comparing ¹³⁷Cs activities and ²¹⁰Pb/¹³⁷Cs ratios in surface soils and sub-surface soils with those of sediment deposits from the reservoir at the outlet of the catchment. Results indicated that landscape location had the most significant impact on sediment production for cultivated hillslopes, followed by the terraced hillslope, and the least for the vegetated hillslope. Sediment production increased in the following order: top>upper>lower>middle for the cultivated hillslope, and top>lower>upper>middle for the terraced hillslope. The mean value of sediment production declined by 49% for the terraced hillslope and by 80% for the vegetated hillslope compared with the cultivated hillslope. Vegetated gully slope reduced the sediment production by 38% compared with the cultivated gully slope. These data demonstrate the effectiveness of terracing and perennial vegetation cover in controlling sediment delivery at a hillslope scale. Averaged ¹³⁷Cs activities and ²¹⁰Pb/¹³⁷Cs ratios in the 0–5 cm surface soil (2.22–4.70 Bq kg⁻¹ and 20.70–22.07, respectively) and in the 5–30 cm subsoil (2.60 Bq kg⁻¹ and 28.57, respectively) on the cultivated hills and gully slopes were close to those of the deposited sediment in the reservoir (3.37 Bq kg⁻¹ and 29.08, respectively). These results suggest that the main sediment sources in the catchment were from the surface soil and subsoil on the cultivated slopes, and that gully erosion is the dominant water erosion process contributing sediment in the study area. Changes in land use types can greatly affect sediment production from gully erosion. An increase in grassland and forestland by 42%, and a corresponding decrease in farmland by 46%, reduced sediment production by 31% in the catchment.     

长武王东试验区道路侵蚀及其防治途径

本文通过野外调查、航片判读、野外人工径流冲刷试验,并结合土壤容重室内试验资料,对影响道路侵蚀的因素进行了综合分析。道路侵蚀是导致高原沟壑区沟头迅速延伸、地形更加破碎的主要原因之一,因此,以道路侵蚀防治为中心,并采用一系列综合防治措施是搞好本区域土壤保持工作的重点。     

Short-term gully retreat rates over rolling hill areas in black soil of Northeast China

Soil loss has become one severe problem in black soil areas of Northeast China after several decades of cultivation. Gully erosion is one of its main components. In this study, short-term gully retreat was monitored from 5 active gullies selected in representative black soil area during April 2002 to June 2004, using differential global positioning system (GPS). With the support of geographic information system (GIS), multitemporal digital elevation models (DEM) were constructed from the data collected by GPS and then used for further analysis. This presents a new method to compute the retreat rate of gully heads and the rate of soil losses caused by gully erosion. The results indicate that the average volumetric retreat rate was 729.1 m³ year^− 1, corresponding with an average linear retreat rate of 6.2 m year^− 1 in gully head and planimetric changes of 323.6 m² year^− 1 during the two monitored years, but more erosion took place during the second and third monitored period compared to the first. The erosion by freeze thawing and snowmelt accounts for a large percent. And this will be emphasized when rainfall is added in spring. If only considering the third monitored period, the conservatively estimated retreat rate by freeze thawing and snowmelt (i.e. before rainy season) may even reach 8.6 m year^− 1 in gully head, with a volumetric rate of 120.9 m³ year^− 1 and planimetric changes of 173.6 m² year^− 1. These results reveal that gully erosion is a great threat in the study area and conservation measures are urgently needed. Based on the analysis of multi-temporal DEM, one conceptual model for gully developing in black soil of Northeast China is proposed, which is supported by the data.