Irrigation scheduling performance by evapotranspiration-based controllers

Evapotranspiration-based irrigation controllers, also known as ET controllers, use ET information or estimation to schedule irrigation. Previous research has shown that ET controllers could reduce irrigation as much as 42% when compared to a time-based irrigation schedule. The objective of this study was to determine the capability of three brands of ET-based irrigation controllers to schedule irrigation compared to a theoretically derived soil water balance model based on the Irrigation Association Smart Water Application Technologies (SWAT) protocol to determine the effectiveness of irrigation scheduling. Five treatments were established, T1-T5, replicated four times for a total of twenty field plots in a completely randomized block design. The irrigation treatments were as follows: T1, Weathermatic SL1600 with SLW15 weather monitor; T2, Toro Intelli-sense; T3, ETwater Smart Controller 100; T4, a time-based treatment determined by local recommendations; and T5, a reduced time-based treatment 60% of T4. All treatments utilized rain sensors set at a 6 mm threshold. A daily soil water balance model was used to calculate the theoretical irrigation requirements for comparison with actual irrigation water applied. Calculated in 30-day running totals, irrigation adequacy and scheduling efficiency were used to quantify under- and over-irrigation, respectively. The study period, 25 May 2006 through 27 November 2007, was drier than the historical average with a total of 1326 mm of rainfall compared to 1979 mm for the same historical period. It was found that all treatments applied less irrigation than required for all seasons. Additionally, the ET controllers applied only half of the irrigation calculated for the theoretical requirement for each irrigation event, on average. Irrigation adequacy decreased when the ET controllers were allowed to irrigate any day of the week. All treatments had decreased scheduling efficiency averages in the rainy season with the largest decrease of 29 percentile points with a timer and rain sensor (T4) and an average decrease of 20 percentile points for the ET controllers, indicating that site specific rainfall has a significant effect on scheduling efficiency results. Rainfall did not drastically impact the average irrigation adequacy results. For this study, there were two controller program settings that impacted the results. The first setting was the crop coefficients where specific values were chosen for the location of the study when calculating the theoretical requirement whereas the controllers used default values. The second setting was the soil type that defines the soil water holding capacity of the soil. The ET controllers were able to regularly adjust to real-time weather, unlike the conventional irrigation timers. However, the incorporation of site specific rainfall measurements is extremely important to their success at managing landscape water needs and at a minimum a rain sensor should be used.     

Evapotranspiration data assimilation with genetic algorithms and SWAP model for on-demand irrigation

Evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the indicators of water use efficiency. Periodic information of ET based on remote sensing is useful for an on-demand irrigation (ODI) management. The main objective of this paper was to develop an ET data assimilation scheme to optimize the parameters of an agro-hydrology model for ODI scheduling. The soil, water, atmosphere, and plant (SWAP) simulation model has been utilized for this purpose. We computed remote sensing-based ET for a wheat field in the Sirsa Irrigation Circle, Haryana, in India using 18 cloud-free moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer images taken between December 2001 and April 2002. The surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) was used for this purpose. Because ET estimates from SEBAL provide information on the surface soil moisture state, they were treated as observations to estimate unknown parameters of the SWAP model via a stochastic data assimilation (genetic algorithm) approach. The SWAP parameters were optimized by minimizing the residuals between SEBAL and SWAP model-based ET values. The optimized parameters were used as input to SWAP to estimate soil water balance for ODI scheduling. The results showed that the selected parameters (i.e. sowing, harvesting, and irrigation scheduling dates) were successfully estimated with the data assimilation methodology. The SWAP model produced reasonable states of water balance by assimilating ET observations. The root mean square of error was 0.755 and 2.132 cm³/cm³ for 0–15 and 15–30 cm soil depths the same layers, respectively. With optimized parameters for ODI, SWAP predicted higher yield and water use efficiency than traditional farmer’s irrigation criteria. The data assimilation methodology produced can be considered as an operational tool at the field scale to schedule irrigation or predict irrigation requirements from remote sensing-based ET.     

叶尔羌河灌区棉花灌溉试验

棉花试验设计了五个灌水下限处理,每个处理四个重复,试验提供了各种处理的１ｍ 土层储水量动态过程,进行了田间土壤水量平衡,分析了棉花生长期耗水强度与灌水量关系,棉花产量与灌水量关系,棉花产量及棉花水分生长率与全生育期总耗水量关系     

Performance assessment of an irrigation scheme using indicators determined with remote sensing techniques

In this work, remote sensing-based assessments of actual evapotranspiration using METRIC integrated with a water balance model provided accurate estimates of irrigation performance. This new methodology was applied and tested in the Genil–Cabra Irrigation Scheme located in southern Spain during the 2004–2005 irrigation season. The performance indicators used, the annual relative irrigation supply (ARIS) and the irrigation water productivity (IWP), required ET input data which were calculated using either METRIC or standard FAO methodology. The new procedure that used METRIC detected overirrigation (ARIS of 1.27) in situations where the ARIS calculated with the standard FAO methodology indicated near-optimal irrigation (ARIS of 0.98). Additionally, the proposed methodology allows the estimation of the volume of applied water at the field scale. Comparisons between the ARIS and IWP values obtained from actual applied water records against those calculated with the new methodology resulted in good agreement. It is concluded that the integration of the METRIC method to calculate actual ET with a water balance model allowed the determination of performance indicators in an irrigation scheme in a reliable and accurate fashion, requiring only very limited information at the field level.     

利用气象资料指导膜下滴灌棉花灌溉的试验研究

利用气象资料指导膜下滴灌棉花灌溉的试验于2007年5~10月份在新疆生产建设兵团灌溉中心试验站的试验基地进行。试验共设置7个处理,分别按生育期ET0的不同比例进行灌水。试验结果表明,为了获得经济合理的产量,膜下滴灌棉花全生育期耗水量应控制在360~405 mm之间。用实时气象资料指导膜下滴灌棉花的灌溉具有很好的可行性,蕾期和花铃后期10 d灌1次水,灌水定额为60%ET0;花铃前期7 d灌1次水,灌水定额为75%ET0,是一种适宜北疆地区膜下滴灌棉花的灌水模式。     

基于ORYZA2000的水量平衡要素和

在对水稻生产模型ORYZA2000充分验证的基础上，以2003年团林水肥耦合试验设计为背景，应用ORYZA2000模拟分析了不同施肥条件下传统淹灌和3种节水灌溉方式下的稻田田间水量平衡要素、产量以及水分生产率。结果表明，节水灌溉方式灌水量大大低于传统淹灌，其中无水层灌溉节水效果又明显优于沟灌，可靠性高，雨养灌溉虽然能最大限度的节约灌溉水量，但其应用取决于区域气候特点，应结合气候预测应用。水分胁迫可以增大不同施氮水平下稻田腾发量的差异，施氮可以减少株间蒸发，增加作物蒸腾，从而增加稻田腾发量和产量。     

Landscape irrigation scheduling efficiency and adequacy by various control technologies

Automated residential irrigation systems tend to result in higher water use than non-automated systems. Increasing the scheduling efficiency of an automated irrigation system provides the opportunity to conserve water resources while maintaining good landscape quality. Control technologies available for reducing over-irrigation include evapotranspiration (ET) based controllers, soil moisture sensor (SMS) controllers, and rain sensors (RS). The purpose of this research was to evaluate the capability of these control technologies to schedule irrigation compared to a soil water balance model based on the Irrigation Association (IA) Smart Water Application Technologies (SWAT) testing protocol. Irrigation adequacy and scheduling efficiency were calculated in 30-day running totals to determine the amount of over- or under-irrigation for each control technology based on the IA SWAT testing protocol. A time-based treatment with irrigation 2 days/week and no rain sensor (NRS) was established as a comparison. In general, the irrigation adequacy ratings (measure of under-irrigation) for the treatments were higher during the fall months of testing than the spring months due to lower ET resulting in lower irrigation demand. Scheduling efficiency values (measure of over-irrigation) decreased for all treatments when rainfall increased. During the rainy period of this testing, total rainfall was almost double reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) while in the remaining three testing periods the opposite was true. The 30-day irrigation adequacy values, considering all treatments, varied during the testing periods by 0-68 percentile points. Looking at only one 30-day testing period, as is done in the IA SWAT testing protocol, will not fully capture the performance of an irrigation controller. Scheduling efficiency alone was not a good indicator of controller performance. The amount of water applied and the timing of application were both important to maintaining acceptable turfgrass quality and receiving good irrigation adequacy and scheduling efficiency scores.     

Crop coefficients and water use for cowpea in the San Joaquin Valley of California

To improve irrigation planning and management, a modified soil water balance method was used to determine the crop coefficients and water use for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in an area with a semi-arid climate. A sandy 0.8-ha field was irrigated with a subsurface drip irrigation system, and the soil moisture was closely monitored for two full seasons. The procedure used was one developed for cotton by DeTar [DeTar, W.R., 2004. Using a subsurface drip irrigation system to measure crop water use. Irrig. Sci. 23, 111-122]. Using a test and validate procedure, we first developed a double sigmoidal model to fit the data from the first season, and then we determined how well the data from the second season fit this model. One of the results of this procedure was that during the early part of the season, the crop coefficients were more closely related to days-after-planting (DAP) than to growing-degree-days (GDDs). For the full season, there was little difference in correlations for the various models using DAP and GDD. When the data from the two seasons were merged, the average value for the crop coefficient during the mid-season plateau was 0.986 for the coefficient used with pan evaporation, and it was 1.211 for the coefficient used with a modified Penman equation for ET₀ from the California Irrigation Management and Information System (CIMIS). For the Penman-Monteith (P-M) equation, the coefficient was 1.223. These coefficients are about 11% higher than for cotton in the same field with the same irrigation system. A model was developed for the merged data, and when it was combined with the normal weather data for this area, it was possible to predict normal water use on a weekly, monthly and seasonal basis. The normal seasonal water use for cowpea in this area was 669 mm. One of the main findings was that the water use by the cowpea was more closely correlated with pan evaporation than it was with the reference ET from CIMIS or P-M.     

Water use and yield responses of cotton to alternate partial root-zone drip irrigation in the arid area of north-west China

A field experiment was carried out over 2 years to investigate the effect of partial root-zone irrigation applied using drip irrigation on the water use and yield of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in oasis fields of arid north-west China. Two irrigation treatments, i.e., conventional drip irrigation (CDI, both sides of plant row watered) or alternate drip irrigation (ADI, both sides of plant row alternatively watered) were applied under plastic mulch. Three irrigation levels (i.e., 15, 22.5, 30 mm during 2004 and 12, 18, 24 mm during 2005) were applied at each irrigation. Monitoring of soil water contents in the ADI treatment indicated a change in root-zone uptake in response to the irrigation method, although there existed some lateral soil water movement from the wetted side to the dry side after each watering. Stomatal conductance in ADI was lower than that of CDI when compared at the same irrigation level. Reduced stomatal conductance and water loss resulted in higher water use efficiency (WUE) in the ADI treatment. About 31-33% less total irrigation water was applied using the ADI method when compared to that of the CDI treatment with a similar seed cotton yield. ADI also yielded 11% more pre-frost seed cotton than CDI in 2005, indicating a better lint quality and higher price. These results suggest that ADI should be a useful water-saving irrigation method in arid oasis fields where cotton production is heavily dependent on irrigation and water resources are scarce.     

Optimization of furrow irrigation schedules,designs and net return to water

A seasonal furrow irrigation model consisting of irrigation scheduling and kinematic-wave-based hydraulic submodels was modified to incorporate an economic optimization submodel. The model used a systematic simulation technique to optimize furrow irrigation schedules and designs assuming 80% irrigation adequacy at cutoff time. The irrigation schedules and designs were optimized for the homogeneous and heterogeneous infiltration under the mean and observed ET_o (grass reference crop ET) conditions. The optimal management allowable depletion (MAD) level changed with the variation in ET_o condition, and with the consideration of spatial and temporal (seasonal) variability in infiltration characteristics. Irrigation design changed with both infiltration conditions and MAD level. Infiltration variability did not influence the bean yield. However, the return to water decreased when spatial variability in infiltration conditions was considered. Using mean ET_o resulted in slightly higher yield and net return to water as compared to using observed ET_o. A small variation in daily mean ET_o values with respect to daily observed ET_o values caused a change in both irrigation schedules and designs. Therefore, mean ET_o cannot be used to forecast irrigation schedules and designs at the beginning of crop season. The net return to water increased (1.7 to 3.6%), and the seasonal inflow, losses, and bean yield decreased in the case of variable interval scheduling (holding MAD constant) as compared to the fixed interval scheduling (MAD varies).     

Application of a simulation based optimization model for winter wheat irrigation scheduling in North China

Irrigation needs to be scheduled properly for winter wheat, the main food crop in North China where the water resources are limited. We optimized the irrigation timing of crops under limited water supply by integrating a soil water balance model, dated water production function with cumulative function of water sensitivity index, and a nonlinear search method. The optimization produced the optimal irrigation date series with the predetermined irrigation quota for each application, which aims to obtain higher crop yield with limited irrigation water and be convenient for irrigation management. This simulation–optimization model was used to investigate the irrigation scheduling of winter wheat in Xiaohe irrigation Area in North China. Results show that optimal irrigation date series, corresponding relative yield and relative evapotranspiration are all closely related to the irrigation quota and initial soil water conditions. For rich and medium initial soil water conditions in medium precipitation year, it takes four times of irrigation (60 mm each time) after greening in order to obtain higher crop yield. But it increases to five times for poor initial condition. With limited irrigation water, irrigation should generally be applied in the preferential sequence of early May or late April (in the jointing stage), then mid and late May (in the heading stage), and finally March (in the greening stage). Irrigation should be applied earlier with lower initial soil water storage. Higher irrigation quota increases the crop yield but tends to decrease the marginal value, especially when irrigation quota exceeds 180 mm. The study also indicates that the optimized relative yield is generally higher than that obtained in field experiment. Based on the optimization, we proposed to use the quadratic polynomial function to describe the frontier water production function, which shows the mathematical relationship between optimized relative yield and relative evapotranspiration.     

A review of downscaling methods for remote sensing-based irrigation management: part I

High-resolution daily evapotranspiration (ET) maps would greatly improve irrigation management. Numerous ET mapping algorithms have been developed to make use of thermal remote sensing data acquired by satellite sensors. However, adoption of remote sensing-based ET maps for irrigation management has not been feasible due to inadequate spatial and temporal resolution of ET maps. Data from a coarse spatial resolution image in agricultural fields often cause inaccurate ET estimation because of a high level of spatial heterogeneity in land use. Image downscaling methods have been utilized to overcome spatial and temporal scaling issues in numerous remote sensing applications. In the field of hydrology, the image downscaling method has been used to improve spatial resolution of remote sensing-based ET maps for irrigation scheduling purposes and thus improves estimation of crop water requirements. This paper (part I) reviews downscaling methods to improve spatial resolution of land surface characteristics such as land surface temperature or ET. Each downscaling method was assessed and compared with respect to their capability of downscaling spatial resolutions of images. The companion paper (part II) presents review of image fusion methods that are also designed to increase spatial resolutions of images by integrating multi-spectral and panchromatic images.     

Role of transpiration suppression by evaporation of intercepted water in improving irrigation efficiency

Sprinkler irrigation efficiency declines when applied water intercepted by the crop foliage, or gross interception (I_gross), as well as airborne droplets and ponded water at the soil surface evaporate before use by the crop. However, evaporation of applied water can also supply some of the atmospheric demands usually met by plant transpiration. Any suppression of crop transpiration from the irrigated area as compared to a non-irrigated area can be subtracted from I_gross irrigation application losses for a reduced, or net, interception (I_net) loss. This study was conducted to determine the extent in which transpiration suppression due to microclimatic modification resulting from evaporation of plant-intercepted water and/or of applied water can reduce total sprinkler irrigation application losses of impact sprinkler and low energy precision application (LEPA) irrigation systems. Fully irrigated corn (Zea Mays L.) was grown on 0.75 m wide east-west rows in 1990 at Bushland, TX in two contiguous 5-ha fields, each containing a weighing lysimeter and micrometeorological instrumentation. Transpiration (Tr) was measured using heat balance sap flow gauges. During and following an impact sprinkler irrigation, within-canopy vapor pressure deficit and canopy temperature declined sharply due to canopyintercepted water and microclimatic modification from evaporation. For an average day time impact irrigation application of 21 mm, estimated average I_gross loss was 10.7%, but the resulting suppression of measured Tr by 50% or more during the irrigation reduced I_gross loss by 3.9%. On days of high solar radiation, continued transpiration suppression following the irrigation reduced I_gross loss an additional 1.2%. Further 4–6% reductions in I_gross losses were predicted when aerodynamic and canopy resistances were considered. Irrigation water applied only at the soil surface by LEPA irrigation had little effect on the microclimate within the canopy and consequently on Tr or ET, or irrigation application efficiency.     

棉花耗水量实时预报研究

棉花耗水量实时预报是棉田实时灌溉预报的关键，也是棉田土壤水分动态模拟的基础。根据理论探讨和对湖北省天门市棉花灌溉试验成果的模拟分析，提出了适合湖北省的参考作物需水量及棉花耗水量逐日预报数学模型。实例研究表明，提出的方法和模型理论上严密，实用上方便，预测精度能够满足要求。     

Accuracy of canopy temperature energy balance for determining daily evapotranspiration

The application of a single-layer canopy temperature energy balance (CTEB) model for determining integrated daily ET rates was tested, with possible applications towards determining irrigation requirements (“how much to irrigate”) as a complement to crop water stress index (CWSI) measurements (“when to irrigate”), an irrigation scheduling tool which uses much of the same data. Evapotranspiration (ET) rates estimated using the CTEB model were compared to Bowen ratio energy balance (BREB) measurements made over substantial portions of the growing seasons of corn and potato crops. Canopy temperature, net radiation and soil heat flux data were collected and analyzed at 20-minute intervals, and ET for each interval was summed to obtain daily and multi-day estimations. Only full canopy conditions were examined. Two methods for atmospheric stability correction were applied to the aerodynamic resistance required by the CTEB model; an iterative procedure proposed by Campbell, and a second procedure proposed by Monteith which uses an adjustment coefficient. To reduce instrumentation requirements for combined CTEB/CWSI data collection, estimates of ET were also determined using net radiation and soil heat flux values estimated from solar radiation measurements. Results showed that uncorrected CTEB ET estimates agreed reasonably well with BREB measurements over corn and potato canopies (RMSE = 0.5 to 0.7 mm day⁻ for observed average ET ranging from 4.8 to 5.5 mm day⁻, with a trend toward seasonal overprediction with corn. Stability corrections usually lowered the daily RMSE 0.1 to 0.2 mm day⁻, with seasonal ET more in agreement with BREB ET. The Monteith-based adjustment gave slightly better results. CTEB ET model with estimated net radiation and soil heat flux terms produced similar average and total ET, but somewhat larger daily errors (RMSE=0.5 to 0.9 mm day⁻). Seasonal total ET by the uncorrected CTEB model generally overestimated within 10% (ranging from 1% to 10%) of the observed BREB total ET, an acceptable error for most irrigation practices. Stability corrections generally caused seasonal ET to be underestimated within 1% to 9%.     

Quantifying reductions in consumptive water use under regulated deficit irrigation in pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)

The reduction in agricultural water use in areas of scarce supplies can release significant amounts of water for other uses. As improvements in irrigation systems and management have been widely adopted by fruit tree growers already, there is a need to explore the potential for reducing irrigation requirements via deficit irrigation (DI). It is also important to quantify to what extent the reduction in applied water through DI is translated into net water savings via tree evapotranspiration (ET) reduction. An experiment was conducted in a commercial pistachio orchard in Madera, CA, where a regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) program was applied to a 32.3-ha block, while another block of the same size was fully irrigated (FI). Four trees were instrumented with six neutron probe access tubes each, in the two treatments and the soil water balance method was used to determine tree ET. Seasonal irrigation water in FI, applied through a full-coverage microsprinkler system, amounted to 842 mm, while only 669 mm were applied in RDI. Seasonal ET in FI was 1024 mm, of which 308 mm were computed as evaporation from soil (E_s). In RDI, seasonal ET was reduced to 784 mm with 288 mm as Es. The reduction in applied water during the deficit period amounted to 147 mm. The ET of RDI during the deficit period was also reduced relative to that of FI by 133 mm, which represented 33% of the ET of FI during the deficit irrigation period. There was an additional ET reduction in RDI of about 100 mm that occurred in the post-deficit period.     

Water-use efficiency of dwarf-green coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) orchards in northeast Brazil

Field experiments were conducted in a tropical region to determine the water-use efficiency (WUE), yield (Y) and evapotranspiration (ET) of a 6-year-old dwarf-green coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) orchard. Three water levels were applied in plots with nine palms. The irrigation treatments denoted as T:50, T:100 and T:150 received 50, 100 and 150 L/plant/day, respectively. The actual evapotranspiration was obtained by the soil water balance (SWB) method. Yield and water-use efficiency were assessed in terms of bunches per plant, fruits per plant and water volume per fruit. The application of the SWB resulted in mean daily ET values of 2.5; 2.9 and 3.2 mm/day for irrigation treatment of T:50, T:100 and T:150, respectively, while the cumulative ET varied from 900 to 1100 mm as irrigation treatment increased from T:50 to T:150. Results also showed that ET values were higher in the beginning and end of the year and lower in the middle of the experimental period. The application of a high irrigation water volume does not necessarily resulted in high coconut fruits yield. Evapotranspiration, fruits yield and water-use efficiency were strongly affected by irrigation water volume in coconut palms. WUE values decreased with increasing irrigation water level for all productivity parameters.     

南方低山丘陵区滴灌葡萄蒸发蒸腾量实时预报

以浙江低山丘陵区永康灌溉试验站为背景,运用Penman-Monteith公式计算分析了永康长系列参考作物腾发量ET0及其变化规律,建立了ET0实时预报模型,并分析了参数A0取值方法对预报精度的影响。采用双作物系数法确定了滴灌葡萄逐日作物系数,建立了滴灌葡萄蒸发蒸腾量实时预报模型。运用实测的土壤含水率资料,根据水量平衡原理分析计算葡萄实际蒸发蒸腾量,与模型的预报值比较表明所建立的模型及其参数合理。     

基于作物耗水特性的夹砂地膜下滴灌模式优选

在2个灌水水平下（I1：高水,I2：低水）以不同滴灌带间距（A1：1m,A2：0.5m）与覆膜方式（M1：全膜覆盖,M2：半膜覆盖）进行2a田间试验,结合作物产量、作物水分利用效率（WUE）以及产投比筛选适宜的膜下滴灌模式,并利用产量水分敏感系数（ky）确定最优的膜下滴灌模式。结果表明：在低频灌溉模式下,部分覆膜处理的蒸腾（ET）高于全覆膜处理,而产量和WUE低于全覆膜处理。尽管滴灌带间距对ET的影响不明显,然而在高水处理下,“一管单行”作物的产量与WUE高于“一管双行”。高频灌溉模式下,作物产量及WUE对灌溉量、覆膜方式、滴灌带间距的响应呈现耦合性。低频灌溉条件下,ky对灌溉量及滴灌带间距的响应均不显著,而部分覆盖处理WUE低,ky高,对水分胁迫的响应敏感。高频灌溉条件下,覆膜方式、灌溉量以及滴灌带间距均对ky 产生影响。高频灌溉条件下,ky能对经WUE筛选出的膜下滴灌处理进行进一步的优选。基于ky的结果,结合产量、水分利用效率与产投比,建议在高频灌溉条件下采取“全膜低水+一管双行”模式或“半膜高水+一管单行”模式,在低频灌溉条件下采取全膜高水模式。