Phenotypic and genetic evaluation of elbow dysplasia in Dutch Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, and Bernese Mountain dogs

Canine elbow dysplasia encompasses four developmental diseases: ununited anconeal process, osteochondrosis of the medial part of the humeral condyle, fragmented medial coronoid process (FCP), and incongruity of the elbow joint. Four radiographic views per joint were used to evaluate 2693 Labrador Retrievers (LRs), 1213 Golden Retrievers (GRs), and 974 Bernese Mountain Dogs (BMDs) for the presence of elbow dysplasia between 2002 and 2009 in the Netherlands. The views were also graded for signs of osteoarthritis and sclerosis. FCP was diagnosed most frequently in LRs, GRs and BMDs, with an incidence of 6%, 5%, and 15%, and a heritability of 0.17, 0.24, and 0.06, respectively. Heritabilities were estimated using a sire model and all available ancestors. Sclerosis at the base of the medial coronoid process was the radiographic sign most strongly correlated with FCP (r=0.95, 0.92, and 0.95 in LRs, GRs and BMDs, respectively). The sex of the dog was significantly correlated with the presence of osteoarthritis in LRs, but not in GRs and BMDs. Male LRs were 1.7-fold more frequently, but not more severely, affected by osteoarthritis than female dogs. Age at radiographic examination was significantly associated with osteoarthritis in all three breeds. The heritability estimates in Retrievers were high enough to warrant including FCP findings in the breeding policy, but until the biomechanical and genetic background of elbow dysplasia are better understood, correct phenotyping with a sensitive technique is essential.     

Multivariate genetic analysis of canine hip and elbow dysplasia as well as humeral osteochondrosis in the Bernese mountain dog

In the present study genetic parameters for canine hip dysplasia (CHD), canine elbow dysplasia (CED) and osteochondrosis dissecans of the humeral head (OCD) were analysed in Bernese mountain dogs. The data set included the official scores for CHD and CED from 5534 Bernese mountain dogs born in the years 1995-2008. A multivariate linear animal model was employed to estimate heritabilities, additive genetic and residual correlations using residual maximum likelihood (REML). Heritability estimates were h2 = 0.26 for CHD, h2 = 0.22 for CED and h2 = 0.40 for OCD. The additive genetic correlation between CHD and CED was 0.31, between CHD and OCD 0.25, and between CED und OCD -0.49. A further multivariate analysis of the prevalence of the FCP (fragmented coronoid processus), CHD and OCD revealed a heritability of h2 = 0.59 for FCP. The additive genetic correlations among FCP and CHD as well CED except FCP were positive, but negative with OCD. Multivariately estimated breeding values will lead to higher genetic progress because the correlation structure of the traits can be taken into account and possible genetic antagonisms among traits are better reflected in the breeding values.     

Population dynamics of inherited copper toxicosis in Dutch Bedlington terriers (1977-1997)

Inherited copper toxicosis in Bedlington terriers was 1st reported in 1975 and the entire Dutch population was examined from 1976 until the present for presence of the disease. To examine the effect on the prevalence of the disease of excluding affected dogs from breeding we have compared 2 time cohorts, the 1st consisting of dogs born from January 1, 1976, to January 1, 1986 (n = 155), and the 2nd of dogs born from January 1, 1990, to January 1, 1997 (n = 195). The diagnosis was made in the 1st cohort by evaluating liver biopsies, and in the 2nd cohort with a DNA marker. The population was also resolved into clusters of related dogs to analyze the familial distribution of the disease in the population and to search for ancient founders of the disease among the ancestors of sick dogs. Forty-six percent of dogs examined between 1976 and 1986 had copper toxicosis. Eleven percent of dogs examined in the 2nd cohort had evidence of disease. This reduction was achieved while maintaining the already limited genetic heterogeneity of the population: the number of clusters and the mean relatedness between the clusters were similar in both time cohorts. The disease was evenly distributed over the clusters of related dogs in both cohorts. All ancestors had contributed to the distribution of copper toxicosis and no specific founders could be identified. This indicates that when the breed was established in The Netherlands, the disease was already highly prevalent in the founding dogs.     

Life expectancy in a birth cohort of Boxers followed up from weaning to 10 years of age

OBJECTIVE: To determine mortality rate over time, risk factors for death, and heritability of life expectancy in Boxers. ANIMALS: 1,733 purebred Boxers born in The Netherlands between January 1994 and March 1995. PROCEDURE: Dogs were followed up from weaning (ie, 49 days of age) to 10 years of age through use of a written questionnaire sent to owners every 6 months. Mortality rate over time, risk factors potentially associated with death, and heritability of life expectancy were examined by use of a proportional hazards model based on the Weibull distribution. RESULTS: stimated mortality rate during the 10-year study period for this birth cohort of Boxers was 45%. The probability of surviving to 5 years of age was 88%; the probability of surviving to 10 years of age was 55%. Estimated effective heritability of life expectancy was 0.076, meaning that in this population, an estimated 76% of the observed variation in life expectancy could be attributed to genetic differences among dogs that were passed from parents to their offspring. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that cumulative incidence of death from weaning to 10 years of age among this birth cohort of Boxers was 45%. The estimated heritability of life expectancy suggested that life expectancy can be improved by use of selective breeding.     

Genetic evaluation of elbow angles as predictors of elbow dysplasia in German shepherd dogs

Elbow angles were measured in X-rays of both elbows to elucidate the usefulness of such data for selecting against elbow dysplasia (ED) in German shepherd dogs. These measurements record the size, proportions and alignments of the anconeal process (PA), the radius (RA), the olecranon (OL), and the ulnar trochlear notch (UL). The reference system for evaluating the information content of the measurements was the score for ED (ED-SV) as recommended by the International Elbow Working Group. Data from 2645 X-rayed dogs born from 1998 to 2001 in 1331 kennels were analysed by using residual maximum likelihood procedures to estimate heritabilities, additive genetic correlations and residual correlations. The pedigree file included 11,426 dogs and contained ancestors for up to six generations. ED-SV was significantly influenced by sex, by age within sex and by month of birth. The elbow angles were significantly influenced by the month and year of birth, X-ray positioning of the dog's forelimbs, angle of elbow flection, litter size and number of dogs X-rayed by the veterinary practitioners. The following heritability estimates were found: h2=0.18+/-0.04 for ED; h2=0.76+/-0.04 for OL; h2=0.52+/-0.05 for PA; h2=0.50+/-0.04 for UL; and h2=0.39+/-0.04 for RA. The additive genetic correlations of ED-SV with three elbow angles (OL, UL and RA) were close to zero. A higher additive genetic correlation to ED-SV was found only for PA, for which r(g)=0.31. The distributions of predicted breeding values for susceptibility to ED were not affected by regarding the elbow angles as additional traits in the multivariate prediction procedure. Measurements of elbow angles were thus shown to be unsuitable for use in selection programmes against ED in German shepherd dogs.     

Genetic variation and genetic trends in hip and elbow dysplasia in Swedish Rottweiler and Bernese Mountain Dog

The aim of this study was to estimate genetic parameters and genetic trends for hip (HD) and elbow dysplasia (ED) in Swedish Rottweiler (RW) and Bernese Mountain Dog (BMD). Analyses were based on screening results of hip status for 14 693 RW and 8221 BMD and elbow status for 11 891 RW and 7963 BMD, as well as pedigree data for 16 614 RW and 9835 BMD, recorded by the Swedish Kennel Club. Components of (co)variance and breeding values were obtained with a mixed linear animal model. The model included the fixed effects of sex, birth month, age at screening and a combined random effect of clinic and year of examination. The need to include genetic groups for phantom parents in the model was evaluated by comparison of two different models: with and without genetic groups. Estimated heritabilities for HD and ED were between 0.34 and 0.42. The genetic correlation between the traits was weak and positive for RW (r_g = 0.23 ± 0.05) and not different from zero for BMD (r_g = 0.06 ± 0.06). F‐statistics of the genetic group effects were not significant, implying that genetic groups do not need to be included in the model. Genetic trends indicated a genetic improvement in both traits. However, a faster genetic progress is expected if selection is based on predicted breeding values rather than phenotype. Based on the results, a statistical model for routine prediction of breeding values for HD and ED in Swedish dogs was suggested.     

Genetic analyses of elbow and hip dysplasia in the German shepherd dog

Results from radiographic screening for canine hip dysplasia (CHD) and elbow dysplasia (CED) of 48 367 German shepherd dogs born in 2001–07 were used for the population genetic analyses. Available information included CHD scores for 47 730 dogs, CED scores for 28 011 dogs and detailed veterinary diagnoses of primary ED lesions for a subsample of 18 899 dogs. Quasi‐continuous traits were CHD, CED and cases of CED without radiographically visible primary lesion (CED‐ARTH). Binary coding was used for fragmented medial coronoid process of the ulna (FCP), borderline findings and mild to severe signs of dysplasia in hip and elbow joints. Genetic parameters were estimated in univariate threshold and multivariate linear and mixed linear‐threshold models using Gibbs sampling. Correlations between univariately predicted breeding values (BV) indicated genetic differences between borderline and affected disease status for both CHD (r_BV = 0.5) and CED (r_BV = 0.3). Multivariate genetic analyses with separate consideration of borderline findings revealed moderate heritabilities of 0.2–0.3 for the quasi‐continuous traits with positive additive genetic correlation of 0.3 between CHD and both CED and CED‐ARTH. For FCP, heritability of 0.6 and additive genetic correlations of +0.1 to CHD and ?0.1 to CED‐ARTH were estimated. Results supported the relevant genetic determination of CHD and CED, argued for both diseases against interpretation of borderline findings as healthy and implied genetic heterogeneity of CED. Accordingly, future breeding strategies to reduce the prevalences of CHD and CED in the German shepherd dog should be most efficient when based on BV from multivariate genetic evaluation for CHD, CED‐ARTH and FCP with use of the whole scale of categories for classification of CHD and CED.     

Familial associations with paratuberculosis ELISA results in Texas Longhorn cattle

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to estimate familial associations with paratuberculosis ELISA status in beef cattle. Texas Longhorn cattle (n=715) greater than 2years of age were sampled for paratuberculosis testing using ELISA and fecal culture. Diagnostic test results were indicative of substantial numbers of false-positive serological reactions consistent with environmental exposure to non-MAP Mycobacterium spp. Associations between ancestors and paratuberculosis ELISA status of offspring were assessed using conditional logistic regression. The association between ELISA status of the dam and her offspring was assessed using linear mixed-effect models. Significant associations were identified between some ancestors and offspring ELISA status. The odds of being classified as "suspect" or greater based on ELISA results were 4.6 times greater for offspring of dams with similarly increased S:P ratios. A significant positive linear association was also observed between dam and offspring log-transformed S:P ratios. Results indicate that there is familial aggregation of paratuberculosis ELISA results in beef cattle and suggest that genetic selection based on paratuberculosis ELISA status may decrease seroprevalence. However, genetic selection may have minimal effect on paratuberculosis control in herds with exposure to non-MAP Mycobacterium spp.     

Estimates of genetic diversity in the brown cattle population of Switzerland obtained from pedigree information

The study investigates the genetic diversity present as well as its development in the Brown Cattle population of Switzerland from pedigree information. The population consisted of three subpopulations, the Braunvieh (BV), the original Braunvieh (OB) and the US‐Brown Swiss (BS). The BV is a cross of OB with BS where crossing still continues. The OB is without any genetic influence of BS. The diversity measures effective population size, effective number of ancestors (explaining 99% of reference genome) and founder genome equivalents were calculated for 11 reference populations of animals born in a single year from 1992 onwards. The BS‐subpopulation consisted of animals and their known ancestors which were used in the crossing scheme and was, therefore, quite small. The youngest animals were born in 2002, the oldest ones in the 1920s. Average inbreeding was by far the highest in BS, in spite of the lowest quality of pedigrees, and lowest in OB. Effective population size obtained from the difference between average inbreeding of offspring and their parents was, mostly due to the heavy use of few highly inbred BS‐sires, strongly overestimated in some BV‐reference populations. If this parameter was calculated from the yearly rate of inbreeding and a generation interval of 5 years, no bias was observed and ranking of populations from high to low was OB – BV – BS, i.e. equal to the other diversity parameters. The high genetic diversity found in OB was a consequence of the use of many natural service sires. Rate of decrease of effective number of ancestors was steeper in BV than OB was, however, equal for founder genome equivalents. Founder genome equivalents were more stable than effective population sizes calculated from the difference between average inbreeding of offspring and parents. The five most important ancestors contributed one‐third of the 2002‐reference genomes of BV and OB, in BV all were BS‐sires. The relative amount of BS‐genes in the BV‐genome increased from 59.2% to 78.5% during the 11 years considered.     

Characterization and prevalence of cataracts in Labrador Retrievers in The Netherlands

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence and distribution of types of cataract, investigate the effects of selective breeding on cataract development, and identify the relationship between posterior polar cataract and other types of cortical cataracts in Labrador Retrievers in The Netherlands. ANIMALS: 9,017 Labrador Retrievers. PROCEDURES: Records of 18,283 ophthalmic examinations performed by veterinary ophthalmologists from 1977 through 2005 were reviewed. There were 522 dogs affected by hereditary cataracts in 1 or both eyes without progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) and 166 PRA-affected dogs with cataracts. These cataracts were divided into 3 groups: posterior polar (triangular) cataract, extensive immature and mature cataract, and a miscellaneous group. Dogs with PRA were analyzed separately. RESULTS: From 1980 through 2000, the prevalence of hereditary cataracts was stable at 8%. The prevalence of cataracts in offspring of cataract-affected dogs was significantly increased, compared with the prevalence in offspring of nonaffected dogs. The distribution of types of cataract was significantly different between dogs with primary cataracts and PRA-affected dogs. Dogs with posterior polar (triangular) cataracts produced affected offspring with the same distribution of types of cataracts as the entire population of primary cataract-affected dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Cataract development in the Labrador Retriever population in The Netherlands appears to be a predominantly genetic disorder. Posterior polar (triangular) cataracts appear to be related to other types of hereditary cataract. Although there is no conclusive evidence, it seems valid to continue exclusion of all Labrador Retrievers affected by any type of primary cataract from breeding.     

Inheritance and determinants of pulmonary oedema in swedish hunting dogs

By using information derived from questionnaires sent to registered owners of drever dams and sires in Sweden with offspring born in 1992 and/or 1994, two groups of offspring were identified: one with one parent said to have had breathing difficulties after hunting, and another with both parents unaffected. Questionnaires were sent to the owners of these offspring, and multiple logistic regression was used to analyse the offspring data, with the status of their sire and dam with respect to breathing difficulties after hunting included as covariates. For the outcome 'breathing difficulties after hunting' in the 266 offspring, the odds ratio (OR) was 4.4 (95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 1.8 to 10.8) if the dam was affected and 3-9 (95 per cent CI 1.2 to 11.1) if the sire was affected. The OR for male offspring was 2.4 (95 per cent CI 1.1 to 5.7). The heritability of the condition was estimated to be 0.34 from the dogs born in 1992, and 0.28 from the dogs born in 1994.     

Prevalence and co-occurrence of hip dysplasia and elbow dysplasia in Dutch pure-bred dogs

Hip as well as elbow dysplasia (HD, ED) are developmental disorders leading to malformation of their respective joints. For a long time both disorders have been scored and targeted for improvement using selective breeding in several Dutch dog populations. In this paper all scores for both HD and ED, given to pure bred dogs in the Netherlands from 2002 to 2010, were analyzed. Heritabilities and correlations between HD and ED were calculated for the 4 most frequently scored breeds. Heritabilities ranged from 0.0 to 0.37 for HD related traits (FCI-score, osteoarthritis, congruity, shape and laxity (Norberg angle); FCI: Fédération Cynologique Internationale) and from 0.0 to 0.39 for ED related traits (IEWG score, osteoarthritis, sclerosis and indentation; IEWG: International Elbow Working Group). HD related traits showed high genetic and residual correlations among each other but were only to a minor extent correlated with ED related traits, which also showed high correlations among each other. Genetic correlations were higher than residual correlations. Phenotypic and genetic trends since 2001 for the four most scored breeds were slightly positive but decreasing over time, indicating that selection over the past decade has not been effective.     

Canine elbow dysplasia and primary lesions in German shepherd dogs in France

Five hundred and twenty German shepherd dogs were screened for elbow dysplasia. The following primary lesions were analysed: joint incongruity (JI), fragmented medial coronoid process (FCP), osteochondrosis or osteochondritis of the medial humeral condyle and ununited anconeal process (UAP). Three radiographic views were used for each joint to achieve a definitive diagnosis. The prevalence of elbow dysplasia was 19.4 per cent. The most frequent lesion was JI (16.3 per cent), followed by FCP (11.3 per cent). UAP was diagnosed rarely (1.1 per cent). Combinations of lesions were very frequent (42.2 per cent of the dysplastic elbows). Although these results may be biased due to prescreening of dogs with UAP, it should be highlighted that JI and FCP occur frequently in German shepherd dogs and are probably the most common primary lesions of elbow dysplasia, although they have been under-reported until now.     

The significance of elbow dysplasia (ED) for breeding in Bernese Mountain Dogs in Germany

Results from the elbow dysplasia screening program in Bernese Mountain Dogs of Germany were analysed in respect to its relevance for genetic evaluation and breeding. In total 2677 gradings were used. The grading was performed radiographically according to the recommendations of the International Elbow Working Group (IEWG). 75.8% of the dogs were free from visible dysplastic signs, 10.8%, 6.8% and 5.5% were classified to be of Grade 1, 2 and 3, respectively. 1.1% were classified as a borderline case between ED-free and Grade 1. A slight reduction of ED could be observed over years. Males had a 3.1 higher rate of dysplasia than females. Treating ED as a numerical trait, coded proportional to the severity of clinical relevant signs, gave a heritability estimation of 0.188 and a maternal effect of 0.07. From different mating combinations it was found, that ED average was higher in the progeny if one mate was affected but there was no increase in the prevalence with increasing grade of ED in the affected mates. About 10% more affected dogs could be observed, if one mate is affected. Heritability for dichotomic coding the trait was found to be 0.20. From these results can be suggested, that the differentiation in various grades of ED to describe the clinical relevance for the specific dog is helpfull, however, from a breeders point of view, dogs with ED should be treated equally for genetic evaluation.     

Gene Dropping Analysis of Ancestral Contributions and Allele Survival in Japanese Thoroughbred Population

Genetic contributions of nine historically important ancestors and allelic diversity in the Japanese Thoroughbred population were examined by applying the gene dropping simulation to the foals produced from 1978 to 2005. Full pedigree records traced to ancestors (base animals) born around 1890 were used for the simulation. Alleles originated from some of the historically important ancestors were found to be at risk of future extinction, although their genetic contributions to the foal population have increased during the last three decades. The proportion of surviving alleles to the total alleles assigned to the base animals was 8.0% in the foal population in 2005, suggesting that a large part of genetic variability contained in the base animals is extinct in the current population.     

Genetic variability in Hanoverian warmblood horses using pedigree analysis

A data set constituting a total of 310,109 Hanoverian warmblood horses was analyzed to ascertain the genetic variability, coefficients of inbreeding, and gene contributions of foreign populations. The reference population contained all Hanoverian horses born from 1980 to 2000. In addition, Hanoverian stallions born from 1980 to 1995 and Hanoverian breeding mares from the birth years 1980 to 1995 with registered foals were analyzed for the same genetic parameters. The average complete generation equivalent was approximately 8.43 for the reference population. The mean coefficient of inbreeding was 1.33, 1.19, and 1.29% for the reference population, stallions, and breeding mares, respectively. The effective number of founders was largest in stallions (364.3) and smallest in the reference population (244.9). The ratio between the effective number of founders and the effective number of ancestors was 3.15 for the reference population, 3.25 for the stallions, and 3.06 for the breeding mares. The effective population size in the Hanoverian warmblood reference population was 372.34. English Thoroughbreds contributed nearly 35% of the genes to the Hanoverian reference population and even slightly greater contributions (39%) to the stallions. Trakehner and Arab horses contributed approximately 8 and 2.7%, respectively, to the Hanoverian gene pool. The most important male ancestors were Aldermann I from the A/E line, Fling from the F/W line, and Absatz from the Trakehner line, whereas the breeding mare Costane had the greatest contribution to the reference population, stallions, and breeding mares. From 1996 onward, the stallions Weltmeyer and Donnerhall had the largest genetic impact on the Hanoverian horse population.     

Evaluation of elbow incongruency using reconstructed CT in dogs suffering fragmented coronoid process

OBJECTIVES: A retrospective study was undertaken to evaluate elbow joint congruency in dogs suffering fragmented coronoid process (FCP). METHODS: Based on clinical, radiographic and computed tomographic (CT) examinations, elbows were divided into control and FCP groups. Standardised CT reconstructions were formatted in the frontal and sagittal planes. Humeroradial and humeroulnar joint space measurements were obtained from the Images and incongruencies were calculated by comparing the two measurements. RESULTS: Forty-two FCP and 29 control elbows were identified. No incongruencies were noted at the coronoid base. At the level of the coronoid apex, FCP elbows exhibited a significant radioulnar incongruency compared with controls (P < 0.0001), though incongruency was not identified in all cases. Comparing FCP and control elbows at the level of the apex, the humeroradial joint space was increased in FCP elbows (P = 0.0006) whereas no difference was noted in the humeroulnar space. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This study supports the hypothesis that joint incongruency is associated with FCP in dogs, though is not present in every case at the time of diagnosis. The precise mechanism of development of this incongruency cannot be determined from these data.     

Validation of a client-based clinical metrology instrument for the evaluation of canine elbow osteoarthritis

Objective : To validate a disease‐specific client‐based clinical metrology instrument (questionnaire) for dogs with chronic osteoarthritis of the elbow joint. Materials and Methods : This was a prospective cohort study involving 26 dogs with chronic osteoarthritis of the elbow with 24 associated clients. Validity (face and criterion), reliability and responsiveness of the metrology instrument (named “Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs [elbow]”) were tested in a sequence of studies. Face validity involved use of international peer review. Reliability was assessed using a test‐retest scenario with a two week interval; peak vertical force as measured by a force platform was used as an external standard measure. Responsiveness was tested with a two week, single‐blinded placebo‐controlled intervention using a licensed non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug. Results : The reliability of Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs (elbow) in the test‐retest scenario was good; intraclass correlation coefficient is 0·89, 95 per cent confidence interval 0·75 to 0·95, compared with intraclass correlation coefficient 0·92, 95 per cent confidence interval 0·74 to 0·98, for peak vertical force. Responsiveness testing indicated that the “net” effect size (allowing for placebo effect) for Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs (elbow) was 0·13 compared with (?)0·18 for the force platform. Criterion validity for Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs (elbow) against peak vertical force was poor; Spearman’s rank correlation is ?0·24 (P=0·30). Clinical Significance : Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs (elbow) was considered reliable with satisfactory responsiveness. The poor criterion validity suggests a mismatch between force platform peak vertical force and client perceptions of lameness. This instrument requires further validation in larger studies with alternative client groups and alternative therapeutic interventions, but this initial validation suggests that Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs (elbow) is worthy of continued investigation.     

Spinal epidural empyema in seven dogs

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the clinical signs, diagnostic and surgical findings, and outcome in dogs with spinal epidural empyema (SEE). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: Seven dogs. METHODS: Dogs with SEE between 1992 and 2001 were identified from a computerized medical record system. Inclusion criteria were: neurologic examination, vertebral column radiographs, myelography, antimicrobial culture and susceptibility of material collected surgically from the vertebral canal, a definitive diagnosis of SEE confirmed by surgery, and microscopic examination of tissue from the vertebral canal. RESULTS: Common signs were lethargy, fever, anorexia, apparent spinal pain, and paraparesis/plegia. Common laboratory abnormalities were peripheral neutrophilia, and neutrophilic pleocytosis in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Three dogs had concurrent discospondylitis and 1 of these had vertebral luxation. On myelography, extradural spinal cord compression was focal (2 dogs), multifocal (3), or diffuse (2). Bacteria were isolated not from CSF but from blood, surgical site, pleural fluid, or urine in 6 dogs. Dogs were administered antibiotics and had surgical decompression by hemilaminectomy. Five dogs improved neurologically and had a good long-term outcome. Two dogs were euthanatized, 1 because of worsening of neurologic signs and pneumonia, and the other because of herniation of a cervical intervertebral disc 1 month postoperatively, unrelated to the SEE. CONCLUSION: Dogs with SEE may have a good outcome when treated by surgical decompression and antibiotic administration. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: SEE should be included in a list of possible causes for dogs with fever, apparent spinal pain, and myelopathy.     

Review on canine elbow dysplasia: pathogenesis, diagnosis, prevalence and genetic aspects

Elbow dysplasia (ED) is a progressive skeletal disease, which may comprise osteoarthrotic changes, incongruity of the joint, a fragmented medial coronoid process (FCP), osteochondrosis dissecans of the trochlea humeri (OCD), and an ununited anconeal process (UAP). Disturbances of enchondral ossification, as well as asynchronous growth of the antebrachial bones and an increased growth rate may provoke abnormal stresses on specific locations such as the medial coronoid process, the anconeal process of the ulna or the humeral trochlea, which may result in ED. Overnutrition with calcium, vitamin D and energy had important influence on rapidity of growth and proneness to ED. ED manifests most often in young dogs less than 1 1/2 year, causing clinical signs such as (intermittent) lameness, pain on movement and altered posture of the affected limb, and radiographically secondary osteoarthrotic changes such as osteophytes or the aforementioned primary lesions. As radiographic projection of the primary lesions FCP and OCD may be difficult in the commonly used mediolateral flexed and craniocaudal views, additional projections such as mediolateral extended or anteroposterior oblique views and alternative diagnostic means such as computed tomography (CT) may be worth considering. Cases of ED are reported in various breeds, though some breeds are especially predisposed and seem to be prone to specific primary lesions. For the German shepherd dog, a breed-predisposition for UAP may be explained by broad chondral junction in association with an accelerated pattern of skeletal maturation. Heritabilities were estimated in a variety of studies, depending strongly on the type of model used. The mode of inheritance is not yet ascertained, but recently the common assumption of a polygenic mode of inheritance for ED is doubted. Instead, genetic independence was supposed between different primary lesions, and also for ED as well as for FCP major gene influence was discussed. So long, phenotypic mass selection was accomplished in different countries most often resulting in a reduced prevalence of ED. The use of best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) methods including information on relatives and separate evaluation of genetically independent primary lesions may further improve selection against ED.