Consequence of dopamine D2 receptor blockade on the hyperphagic effect induced by cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors in layers

1. Endocannabinoids (ECBs) and their receptors play a regulatory function on several physiological processes such as feed-intake behaviour, mainly in the brain. This study was carried out in order to investigate the effects of the dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors on CB1/CB2 ECB receptor-induced hyperphagia in 3-h feed-deprived neonatal layer chickens.

2. A total of 8 experiments were designed to explore the interplay of these two modulatory systems on feed intake in neonatal chickens. In Experiment 1, chickens were intracerebroventricular (ICV) injected with control solution, l-DOPA (levo-dihydroxyphenylalanine as precursor of dopamine; 125 nmol), 2-AG (2-arachidonoylglycerol as CB₁ receptor agonist; 2 µg) and co-administration of l-DOPA (125 nmol) plus 2-AG (2 µg). Experiments 2–4 were similar to Experiment 1 except birds were injected with either 6-OHDA (6-hydroxydopamine as dopamine synthesis inhibitor; 150 nmol), SCH23390 (D1 receptor antagonist; 5 nmol) and AMI-193 (D2 receptor antagonist; 5 nmol) instead of l-DOPA, respectively. Additionally, Experiments 5–8 followed the previous ones using the same dose of l-DOPA, 6-OHDA and dopamine antagonists except that birds were injected with CB65 (CB2 receptor agonist; 5 µg) instead of 2-AG. Coadministrations were at the same dose for each experiment. Cumulative feed intakes were measured until 120 min after each injection.

3. ICV administration of 6-OHDA and AMI-193 significantly attenuated 2-AG-induced hyperphagia. Interestingly, the hyperphagic effect of CB65 was significantly attenuated by administration of l-DOPA, whereas the administration of 6-OHDA and AMI-193 together amplified the hyperphagic effect of CB65.

4. It was concluded that cannabinoid-induced feeding behaviour is probably modulated by dopamine receptors in neonatal layer-type chickens. It seems that their interaction may be mediated by the D2-dopamine receptor.     

D-Xylose absorption capacity of broiler intestine in response to phytic acid

1?Dietary phytic acid (PA) reduces the apparent digestion and of dietary nutrients, increases the excretion of endogenous amino acids and minerals and reduces the concentration of blood glucose.

2?An experiment was conducted to examine the effect of phytic acid on the absorption capacity of the intestine in broiler chicken, using a D-xylose absorption test.

3?Three groups of ten 26-d-old apparently healthy broiler cockerels (Ross 308) were dosed with D-xylose solution (500 mg/kg BW, Group 1) or D-xylose solution + PA (330 or 660 mg/5 ml/bird, in groups 2 and 3), respectively. The plasma concentration of D-xylose was measured at 40-min intervals after ingestion of test materials, for a total of 160 min.

4?There was a quadratic correlation between the concentration of plasma D-xylose and time in all experimental groups (P < 0?001, R ²= 0?78, 0?80 and 0?81 for groups 1–3, respectively). Ingestion of PA at 660 mg reduced the concentration of plasma D-xylose by 21?6 and 10?5% at 40 and 80 min after ingestion of the test material, indicating a lower absorption of this sugar.

5?It was concluded that dietary phytates might affect the productive performance of chicken, at least partly, by disturbing the transport mechanisms involved in the absorption of nutrients.     

Changes in plasma gonadotrophins, testosterone, prolactin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine concentrations in male Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) of a heavy body weight line during photo-induced testicular growth and regression

1. Simultaneous changes of cloacal gland area (CGA) and plasma luteinising hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone (T), prolactin (PRL), thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃) during photo-induced testicular growth and regression were measured in commercially bred Japanese quail from a heavy body weight line.

2. Somatically mature male Japanese quail were transferred from short days (light:dark 8L:16D) at 10°C, to long days (16L:8D) at 20°C; and sexually mature male Japanese quail were transferred from long to short days. All variables were measured at transfer and every 5?d thereafter for 35?d.

3. Transfer from short to long days caused significant increases in LH, FSH, T and testis weight (TW) after 5?d, and in CGA after 10?d. T₃ decreased after 5?d, whereas T₄ increased significantly after 25 long days and PRL did not undergo any consistent change. The testicular growth rate was k?=?0·1146.

4. Transferring quail from long to short days caused significant decreases in LH and FSH after 5?d, and decreases in T, TW and CGA after 10?d. T₄ decreased after 5?d whilst T₃ increased significantly by day 15. PRL decreased significantly after 10?d then rose before declining again. The testicular regression rate was k?=?0·0582.

5. The rates of photo-induced testicular development and regression in a strain of large Japanese quail did not differ from rates reported for other strains of quail. CGA was a better indicator of TW than plasma T concentrations during growth and regression. The role of PRL in photo-induced reproductive cycles in male Japanese quail remains to be determined.

6. The photoperiod-induced changes in gonad size and hormone concentrations, together provide valuable information that can be used in future studies of the endocrinology and neuroendocrinology of photoperiodism in birds.     

Performance,gut morphology and microbiology effects of a Bacillus probiotic,avilamycin and their combination in mixed grain broiler diets

1. This study aimed to determine the effect of avilamycin (AGP) and a multi-strain Bacillus probiotic (DFM) on the performance, gut histology and microbiology of broilers fed on a mixed grain diet.

2. A total of 800 chicks were allocated to four treatments: a control diet, control+AGP, control+DFM, or control+AGP+DFM. Bodyweight, feed intake and FCR were measured at d 0, 21 and 42. Samples were taken at d42 to determine villus height (VH), crypt depth (CD) and ratio (VH:CD). Mucosal E. coli and Lactobacilli counts were measured at d42.

3. At d42, DFM and AGP+DFM significantly increased weight over the control, with AGP returning an intermediate value. FCR followed a similar pattern. DFM and AGP+DFM significantly increased VH and CD in all gut sections compared to the control.

4. DFM and AGP+DFM reduced E. coli counts compared to control, with AGP reducing caecal counts only, while Lactobacilli counts were increased.

5. Divergent histology and microbiology between treatments highlight the different modes of action of AGP and DFM for improving broiler growth and feed efficiency.     

Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding

1.?The objectives were to quantify the presence of neurogenic inflammation in 4 regions of the upper digestive tract of anaesthetised ducks (post-pharynx, pseudo-crop, transition between the pseudo-crop and the proventriculus, and proventriculus) after application of HCl stimulation of up to 4?M in the pseudo-crop.

2.?The second objective was to quantify the presence of neurogenic inflammation in the same digestive tract regions as mentioned above during 4 feeding periods of foie gras production (rearing, preparation to force-feeding, and second and last meals of the force-feeding period).

3.?Extravasation increased above a HCl stimulation threshold of 2?M. Furthermore, more extravasation was observed in the proventriculus compared to the other regions (P?

4.?Highest extravasation responses were observed in the proventriculus and the pseudo-crop at the end of the preparation period, and in the proventriculus after the second forced meal, compared with the rearing period (P?

5.?Such a kinetic could be indicative of a relative mildness of the irritant components associated with this feeding practice.     

Effects of phytoestrogens on testosterone secretion by Leydig cells from Biłgoraj ganders (Anser anser)

1. The aim of this study was to examine ganders at different stages of the reproductive season and the effect of: (1) diets with high phytoestrogen content and (2) in vitro phytoestrogen treatment on testosterone secretion by isolated Leydig cells.

2. Thirty-six male Bi?goraj geese were fed control diets with low phytoestrogen content (containing grass meal) and diets with high phytoestrogens (containing alfalfa meal and soy).

3. Testes were obtained from both groups of ganders at three different times of the breeding season: peak of reproductive activity (March), second half of reproductive activity (May) and beginning of photorefractoriness (July).

4. Isolated Leydig cells were incubated with LH as well as genistein, daidzein, equol and coumestrol and the concentration of testosterone in the medium was determined by radioimmunoassay.

5. The mean weight of testes from ganders in May and July decreased relative to their weights in March, but no significant differences among experimental groups were noted.

6. No differences were observed in basal and LH-stimulated testosterone secretion by Leydig cells of ganders fed the control diets and the diets with higher phytoestrogen content. In July, LH did not stimulate testosterone secretion in either group. In vitro treatment with genistein, daidzein and equol (5 and 50?µM) inhibited basal and LH-stimulated testosterone production by Leydig cells from both groups. Coumestrol (5 and 50?µM) inhibited basal testosterone secretion only in March in the control group.

7. Dietary exposure to phytoestrogens had a slight effect on in vitro testicular secretion in ganders. In vitro treatment with phytoestrogen inhibited testosterone production by Leydig cells. Genistein showed the strongest effect and coumestrol had the weakest influence on testicular secretion.     

Evaluation of a Bacillus direct-fed microbial candidate on digesta viscosity,bacterial translocation,microbiota composition and bone mineralisation in broiler chickens fed on a rye-based diet

1. The effects of the dietary inclusion of a Bacillus-based direct-fed microbial (DFM) candidate on digesta viscosity, bacterial translocation, microbiota composition and bone mineralisation were evaluated in broilers consuming rye-based diets.

2. In the present study, control mash rye-based diets (CON) or Bacillus-DFM supplemented diets (TRT) were administered ad libitum to male broilers in three independent experiments.

3. In Experiments 1 and 2 (n = 25/group), liver samples were taken to evaluate bacterial translocation, digesta samples were used for viscosity measurements and the intestinal microbial flora was evaluated from different intestinal sections to enumerate total recovered gram-negative bacteria (TGB), lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and anaerobic bacteria (TAB). Additionally, both tibias were removed for assessment of bone quality.

4. In Experiment 3, each experimental group had 8 replicates of 20 chickens (n = 160/group). Weekly, body weight (BW), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were evaluated. At d 28-of-age, samples were taken to determine bacterial translocation, digesta viscosity and bone quality characteristics.

5. In all experiments, consumption of Bacillus-DFM reduced bacterial translocation to the liver and digesta viscosity. Additionally, DFM supplementation improved BW, bone quality measurements and FCR. Moreover, chickens fed on the Bacillus-DFM diet in Experiments 1 and 2 showed a significant reduction in the number of gram-negative and anaerobic bacteria in the duodenal content compared to control.

6. In summary, chickens fed on a rye-based diet without DFM inclusion showed an increase in bacterial translocation and digesta viscosity, accompanied by reduced performance and bone quality variables relative to the Bacillus-DFM candidate group. Hence, incorporation into the feed of a selected DFM ameliorated the adverse anti-nutritional effects related to utilisation of rye-based diets in broilers chickens.     

Dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) causes intestinal histopathology and inflammatory changes consistent with increased gut leakiness in chickens

1. The clinical severity, histological changes, indicators of gut leakiness and inflammatory cytokine profiles were studied in chickens with dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)-induced intestinal inflammation.

2. The experimental groups (1.25%, 1.5% and 2.5% DSS) showed clinical signs, such as loose stools and weight loss, which increased with additional treatment days and, as expected, the effects of DSS-induced intestinal inflammation were time and dose-dependent.

3. After 10 d, histological manifestations were evident, including goblet cell depletion, mucus layer loss, significantly shorter villi and a thinner total ileal mucosa.

4. The d(-)-lactate value, which was used as a gut leakiness indicator, was significantly increased in the 2.5% DSS group.

5. Expression of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1Beta, tumour necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-10 in the serum significantly increased with DSS treatment.

6. This study indicates that the experimental intestinal inflammation induced by DSS is an ideal model to study the pathogenic mechanisms of intestinal inflammation in chickens and to test the efficacy of therapies.     

The occurrence of giant fibres in different muscles of two chicken genotypes

1. The occurrence of Giant Fibres (GF) in three muscles (Pectoralis major (PM), Iliotibialis lateralis and Semimembranosus) with different types of energy metabolism was studied in slow- and fast-growing chicken strains.

2. A total of 20 one-day-old Leghorn chicks (slow-growing) and 20 broiler (Ross 508) chicks (fast-growing) were reared to 100 and 45 d, respectively.

3. A small percentage of GF was seen in pre rigor muscle samples even at 3 min post mortem in both genotypes and in all muscle types studied.

4. From 3 min to 24 h post mortem GF increased both in Leghorn and broiler chickens but to a different extent according to muscle type and genotype.

5. The highest GF 24 h post mortem value was found in the PM muscles belonging to the fast-growing broiler line.

6. It was concluded that every type of muscle can develop GF, but this phenomenon is more evident in the PM especially in animals selected for increased growth rate.     

Possible role of central interleukins on the anorexigenic effect of lipopolysaccharide in chicks

1. The purpose of the present study was to determine if central interleukin-1β (IL1β), interleukin-6 (IL6) and interleukin-8 (IL8) affect feeding behaviour in chicks (Gallus gallus) and examine if central interleukins are related to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced anorexia.

2. Intra-abdominal (IA) injection of LPS significantly suppressed feeding behaviour and significantly increased mRNA expression of IL1β and IL8 in the diencephalon when compared to the control group, while IL6 tended to be increased.

3. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of 200 ng IL1β significantly decreased food intake at 60 min after the injection while IL6 and IL8 had no effect.

4. IA injection of these ILs (200 ng) had no effect on food intake in chicks.

5. ICV injection of 200 ng IL1β did not affect water intake and plasma corticosterone concentration, suggesting that central IL1β might not be related to the regulation of drinking behaviour and the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis.

6. The present study demonstrated that central IL1β but not IL6 and IL8 might be related to the inhibition of feeding in chicks.     

Effects of dietary supplementation with Gynura procumbens (Merr.) on egg yolk cholesterol,excreta microflora and laying hen performance

1. The present study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with Gynura procumbens on egg yolk and serum cholesterol and triglycerides, excreta microflora, laying performance and egg quality.

2. A total of 160 Hy-Line Brown layers (45 weeks old) were randomly assigned into 4 treatments on the basis of laying performance. Each treatment had 4 replicates with 10 birds each.

3. Dietary treatments were basal diet supplemented with 0 (control), 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 g/kg diet G. procumbens during 56-d feeding period.

4. Serum (d 21, 42 and 56) and egg yolk (d 28, 42 and 56) cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations were linearly reduced with increasing dietary concentrations of G. procumbens.

5. Increasing dietary concentrations of G. procumbens linearly reduced the excreta total anaerobic bacteria (d 28), Clostridium sp. and Escherichia coli (d 28 and 56) populations.

6. Overall egg production and egg mass were linearly increased, and overall feed efficiency was linearly improved with increase in dietary G. procumbens.

7. Dietary increasing concentrations of G. procumbens linearly improved egg yolk colour (d 28 and 56) and breaking strength of eggs (d 56).

8. The results obtained in the present experiment indicate that dietary supplementation with G. procumbens could reduce the egg yolk cholesterol, suppresses harmful excreta microflora and improves layers performance.     

Effects of a dry-ice process on surface and carcase decontamination in the poultry industry

1. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dry-ice decontamination on equipment and carcase surfaces in a poultry slaughterhouse and to present an effective alternative method to the conventional decontamination processes.

2. Appreciable reductions occurred in total aerobic mesophilic bacterial counts of surface swab samples treated with dry ice (maximum difference 3.92 log cfu/100 cm²).

3. After dry-ice treatment, Listeria spp. were detected on surfaces of pluckers and chiller cylinders, whereas Salmonella spp. were totally inhibited.

4. A dry-ice spraying application was more effective than a dry-ice immersing application on total aerobic mesophilic bacteria and yeast and mould counts on poultry carcases.

5. Dry-ice treatment has advantages over conventional processes. Unlike other decontamination techniques, there are no residues, so no need to wash off chemical residues from surfaces as it removes contaminants effortlessly and is environmentally friendly.

6. Dry-ice blasting of production equipment can reduce the microbial load and has potential for use in the poultry industry.     

Valine,isoleucine, arginine and glycine supplementation of low-protein diets for broiler chickens during the starter and grower phases

1. Two experiments were performed to study the supplementation of valine, isoleucine, arginine and glycine (Val, Ile, Arg, Gly) in low-protein diets for broiler chickens in the starter (1–21 d; Exp. 1) and grower (22–42 d; Exp. 2) phases.

2. A low-crude protein (CP) diet was formulated to meet the requirements of all amino acids (AA) supplied by the control diet except for Val, Ile, Arg and Gly. The other experimental diets were obtained by the isolated or combined supplementation of the studied AA in the low-CP diet.

3. Growth, serum parameters and litter characteristics were taken in both of the experiments. Carcass measurements were taken in Experiment 2.

4. In the starter and grower phases, low-CP diets without supplementation resulted in birds with a poorer weight gain and feed conversion than those of the birds that received the control diet.

5. In the starter phase, individual supplementation with Val and Gly, but not Ile and Arg, restored the weight gain of the birds, while diets with the addition of Val + Gly, Val + Ile + Arg, Val + Ile + Gly and Val + Ile + Arg + Gly restored their feed conversion.

6. In the grower phase, weight gain was re-established at the same rate as the control diet for the diets supplemented with Val + Ile, Val + Ile + Arg, Val + Ile + Gly and Val + Ile + Arg + Gly. However, the feed conversion was restored only in birds that received the diet supplemented with all studied AA.

7. The supplementation of Val and Gly in low-CP diets was sufficient to avoid adverse effects in the performance and serum parameters of broilers in the starter phase. However, birds in the grower phase required the combined supplementation of Val, Ile, Arg and Gly, to prevent compromised performance.     

Effects of dietary boron and phytase supplementation on growth performance and mineral profile of broiler chickens fed on diets adequate or deficient in calcium and phosphorus

1. Two experiments were designed to determine the effect of dietary boron (B) in broiler chickens. In Experiment 1, a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments was used to investigate the effect of dietary calcium (Ca) and available phosphorus (aP) (adequate or deficient) and supplemental B (0, 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg diet). In Experiment 2, B, at 20 mg/kg, and phytase (PHY) (500 FTU/kg diet) were incorporated into a basal diet deficient in Ca and aP, either alone or in combination.

2. The parameters that were measured were growth performance indices, serum biochemical activity as well as ash and mineral (i.e. Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Cu and Zn) content of tibia, breast muscle and liver.

3. Results indicated that both supplemental B and dietary Ca and aP had marginal effects on performance indices of chickens grown for 42 d.

4. There were positive correlations (linear effect) between B concentrations of serum, bone, breast muscle and liver and the amount of B consumed.

5. Serum T₃ and T₄ activities increased linearly with higher B supplementation.

6. Increasing supplemental B had significant implications on breast muscle and liver mineral composition. Lowering dietary Ca and aP level increased Cu content in liver and both Fe and Zn retention in breast muscle. Tibia ash content and mineral composition did not respond to dietary modifications with either Ca–aP or B.

7. The results also suggested that dietary contents of Ca and aP do not affect the response to B regarding tissue mineral profile. Dietary combination with B and PHY did not create a synergism with regard to growth performance and bioavailability of the minerals.     

Polymorphism and expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) gene and its association with growth traits in chicken

1. The objectives of the study were to detect polymorphism in the coding region of the IGF1 gene, explore the expression profile and estimate association with growth traits in indigenous and exotic chickens.

2. A total of 12 haplotypes were found in Cornish, control layer and Aseel breeds of chicken in which the h1 haplotype was most frequent.

3. Nucleotide substitutions among haplotypes were found at 21 positions in the IGF1 gene in which 4 substitutions resulted in non-synonymous mutations in the receptor binding domain of the IGF1 protein.

4. The haplogroup showed a significant effect on body weight at 24 and 42 d of age in the control layer line, body weight at 42 d and daily weight gain between 29 and 42 d in the control broiler line, daily weight gain between 29 and 42 d in Cornish, and body weights at 42 d as well as daily weight gain between 29 and 42 d in Aseel birds.

5. IGF1 expression varied among the breeds during embryonic and post-hatch periods. The expression among the haplogroups varied in different chicken tissues. The effect of haplogroup on myofibre number in pectoral muscle was non-significant, although there was significant variation in numbers between d 1 and d 42, and between broiler and layer lines.

6. It was concluded that the coding region of the IGF1 gene was polymorphic, expressed differentially during the pre-hatch and post-hatch periods, and haplogroups showed significant association with growth traits in chicken.     

Phenotypic and genetic variability for body weight of ostriches (Struthio camelus)

1. objective of the present study was to estimate heritability for hatch weight (HW), body weight at 90 (W90) and 180 (W180) d of age in Brazilian ostriches.

2. The heritability estimates were obtained through the restricted maximum likelihood method for an animal model. Least squares method was used to define possible fixed effects for consideration in the analysis model.

3. The estimates of heritability were 0.42 ± 0.05, 0.16 ± 0.04 and 0.24 ± 0.08 for HW, W90 and W180, respectively.

4. Heritability estimates showed that there are sufficient levels of additive genetic variation present in the traits studied, and these traits may respond to selection.     

Encapsulated benzoic acid supplementation in broiler diets influences gut bacterial composition and activity

1. The present study investigated the effects of encapsulated benzoic acid (BA) supplementation in broiler feed on performance and gastrointestinal microbiota.

2. Eighty broilers were randomly divided into two groups. Birds in the control group were fed on maize–soybean-based diets. Birds in the treatment group were provided the same diet supplemented with 2 g/kg BA encapsulated in a vegetable oil matrix.

3. At the end of the trial (d 35), pH, bacterial composition and metabolites were determined in the crop, jejunum, ileum and caecum.

4. Growth performance variables and pH were not significantly different.

5. BA concentration decreased rapidly in the proximal gut. However, the treatment diet showed higher BA in the crop, jejunum, ileum and caecum.

6. Total lactate in the crop and D-lactate in the jejunum was higher in the BA treated group. Caecal total and branched chain fatty acids were decreased due to the treatment.

7. Lactobacilli populations were significantly altered by BA supplementation. A trend for increased lactobacilli was observed in the crop, while it became significant in the jejunum and ileum. Lactobacillus species responded differently to the treatment. Four of 5 measured Lactobacillus species, particularly in the ileum, followed the course observed for total lactobacilli; only Lactobacillus salivarius was not modified.

8. Correlation analysis showed that BA modified the intestinal microbiota. Lactobacilli correlated negatively to all studied clostridial clusters and enterobacteria. Clostridial clusters IV and XIVa were significantly increased in the jejunum, whereas only clostridial cluster XIVa was increased in the caecum.

9. Encapsulated BA modified the intestinal microbiota which can lead to the conclusion, that the main beneficial mode of action of BA in the gut appears to be the enhancement of lactic acid bacteria, which in turn may act as a vanguard against pathogens.     

Fat accumulation,fatty acids and melting point changes in broiler chick abdominal fat as affected by time of dietary fat feeding and slaughter age

1. This work aims to quantify changes in fatty acid profile, melting point, abdominal fat accumulation and 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances production depending on dietary fat source and age at slaughter, and to estimate the optimal date for the change from an unsaturated fat to a saturated fat diet or vice versa.

2. Treatments established were (1) birds fed 8% tallow from 21 to 49 d (TTT); (2) birds fed 8% tallow from 21 to 37 d and 8% sunflower oil from d 38 to 49 (TSS); (3) birds fed 8% sunflower oil from 21 to 37 d and 8% tallow from d 38 to 49 (STT); (4) birds fed 8% sunflower oil from 21 to 41 d and 8% tallow from d 42 to 49 (SST); (5) birds fed 8% sunflower oil from 21 to 49 d (SSS). Birds from each group were slaughtered on d 21, 29, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46 and 49.

3. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) proportion in the SSS group reached maximum values at d 40 and fitted a quadratic response. This group also showed a decrease in saturated fatty acids (SATs) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) of lower intensity than the PUFA increase. The highest synthesis of SAT + MUFA was found in the SSS and TSS groups, whereas these had the lowest body-to-dietary PUFA ratio.

4. A high and quadratic increase in the MUFA proportion was observed during the first 10 d of feeding with the tallow-enriched diet at the expenses of the proportion of PUFA that quadratically decreased (minimum values at d 38).

5. Lipogenic and desaturation capacity decreased with age.

6. The TSS group increased tissue PUFA content faster that the SST group decreased PUFA content after the change in diet which indicates that the earlier feeding has to be taken into consideration for obtaining higher or lower changes in quality parameters.

7. The melting point of the SSS group showed a lower response to the dietary treatment in the initial period when compared to the TTT treatment.

8. The TTT, STT, SST and TSS groups showed similar fat accumulation, and changes in lipid oxidation were related to the day of dietary sunflower oil supplementation.

9. Based on the results, it would be possible to determine the most appropriate dietary programme and optimum slaughter age to obtain chicken meat with the desired quality characteristics.     

Soya bean meal increases litter moisture and foot pad dermatitis in maize and wheat based diets for turkeys but maize and non-soya diets lower body weight

1. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment was conducted to compare the effects of wheat or maize based diets differing in dietary electrolyte balance (DEB) on litter moisture and foot pad dermatitis (FPD) at 4, 8 and 12 weeks of age in heavy-medium turkeys. A second objective was to investigate the effects on foot pad dermatitis of the interaction between dietary composition and artificially increasing litter moisture by adding water to the litter.

2. High DEB diets contained soya as the main protein source whereas low DEB diets did not contain soya bean meal. Diets were formulated to be iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous in each of 3 successive 4-week phases following recommended dietary compositions. DEB concentrations were 330, 290 and 250 mEq/kg in high DEB diets and 230, 200 and 180 mEq/kg in low DEB diets.

3. Litter moisture and mean FPD score were higher in turkeys fed on high DEB diets compared with low DEB diets whereas there was no difference between maize and wheat.

4. Food intake was similar and body weight was lower after litter moisture was artificially raised in the wet compared with the dry litter treatment and there was no interaction with dietary composition.

5. Mean body weight and feed intake were higher in turkeys fed on wheat compared with maize and in high DEB compared with low DEB diets at 12 weeks of age.

6. Lowering dietary DEB for turkeys may improve litter moisture and lower the prevalence of FPD in commercial turkey flocks.     

Ileal MUC2 gene expression and microbial population,but not growth performance and immune response,are influenced by in ovo injection of probiotics in broiler chickens

1. The objective of present study was to evaluate the effects of intra-amniotic injection of different probiotic strains (Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecium and Pediococcus acidilactici) on the intestinal MUC2 gene expression, microbial population, growth performance and immune response in broiler chicken.

2. In a completely randomised design, different probiotic strains were injected into the amniotic fluid of the 480 live embryos (d 18 of incubation), with 4 treatments and 5 replicates. Ileal MUC2 gene expression, microbial profile, growth performance and immune response were determined.

3. Injection of probiotic strains, especially B. subtilis, had significant effect on expression of the MUC2 on d 21 of incubation and d 3 post-hatch, but not on d 19 of incubation.

4. Injection of the probiotic strains decreased significantly the Escherichia coli population and increased the lactic acid bacteria population during the first week post-hatch.

5. Inoculation of probiotics had no significant effect on antibody titres against Newcastle disease virus, antibody titres against sheep red blood cell and cell-mediated immune response of chickens compared to control.

6. In ovo injection of the probiotic strains had no significant effect on growth performance of broiler chickens.

7. It was concluded that injection of probiotic bacteria especially B. subtilis into the amniotic fluid has a beneficial effect on ileal MUC2 gene expression and bacteria population during the first week post-hatch, but has no effect on growth performance and immune response in broiler chickens.