Veterinary practitioners in rural Australia: a national survey

OBJECTIVES: To assess the attitudes of Australian veterinarians to issues related to rural veterinary practice. METHODS: A questionnaire was completed by 1367 AVA members, and the data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows 7.0. RESULTS: The country lifestyle and the type of work were seen as major advantages for rural practitioners, and long working hours and after hours demands coupled with sexist attitudes in the case of women, were seen as the main disadvantages. Remuneration, the tiring and often dangerous nature of the work, and social and professional isolation were also seen as major disadvantages. Personal qualities, including the ability to relate to rural people and to fit into rural communities were seen as the most important qualities for a veterinarian in rural practice. The future of rural practitioners was seen to be closely linked to their ability to contribute to the financial viability of the whole animal enterprise and to the fortunes of the rural industries. Companion animals were also seen as a key part of the future work of rural practitioners. CONCLUSIONS: Rural practitioners are characterised by a strong commitment to rural life and work, and they will increasingly be required to contribute to the financial viability of the whole animal enterprise. The full range of professional skills required are likely to be beyond the scope of the undergraduate veterinary course, but the internet and other modern forms of distance education should help practitioners to acquire relevant skills.     

Final-year student and employer views of essential personal, interpersonal and professional attributes for new veterinary science graduates

Objective To describe the perceptions of final‐year veterinary science students regarding the importance of a variety of personal, interpersonal and professional attributes for new graduates, and to compare these with the views held by employers of new veterinary science graduates. Design Final‐year veterinary science students at The University of Queensland and a sample of employers of new graduates from The University of Queensland were surveyed using a written questionnaire. Results The distributions of responses given by students and employers did not differ significantly for 44 of 54 attributes listed. Communication skills, teamwork, respect for co‐workers, honesty and an awareness of personal limitations were valued highly by students and employers. Conclusion Final‐year students and employers of new graduates from The University of Queensland ascribe similar importance to a variety of personal, interpersonal and professional attributes for new veterinary science graduates.     

A longitudinal study of veterinary students and recent graduates: 3. Perceptions of veterinary education

Objective To examine the attitudes and opinions on veterinary education at the beginning and end of the veterinary course, and after graduation.
Design Longitudinal study.
Population Students – 154 in all – who began studying veterinary science at The University of Queensland in 1985 and 1986.
Procedure Questionnaires were completed in the first and fifth year of the course and in the second year after graduation. The data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows.
Results When they entered the course, the students were looking forward more to learning about animals than about basic sciences. At fifth year and after graduation most believed that more emphasis should have been placed on all facets of their education except the basic sciences. It may be difficult to increase this emphasis without placing undue pressure on the students, although more than half of the fifth year students and graduates agreed that there is much in the curriculum that is not needed by a practising veterinarian. Only one-third or less agreed that veterinarians are well equipped to practise veterinary science immediately they graduate. There was no relationship between the level of agreement with this statement, and the academic grades obtained.
Conclusions A majority of veterinary graduates do not believe that they are well equipped to practice immediately they graduate. They believe that more emphasis should have been placed on most facets of their education, but, conversely, that there is much in the curriculum that is not needed by a practising veterinarian.     

Costs of studying veterinary science: a national survey of fourth year veterinary students

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the costs to the student of veterinary education. METHOD: A questionnaire was completed by 180 fourth-year veterinary students from the four veterinary schools in Australia. Frequencies and median costs were estimated using the SAS System for Windows 95. RESULTS: The median direct living costs were about $5000 per academic year, but were higher in Sydney and for those with additional expenses including children, pets and cars. Other costs associated with the course including text books, equipment and travel to practical work were of the order of $1000, and income foregone while doing practical work placed additional burdens on some. More than half the students from Sydney and Murdoch needed to work to provide basic necessities. Most of this work involved interaction with animals or people. The percentage of Queensland and Melbourne students needing to work was lower, 47 and 24 respectively, and fewer of those worked directly with animals or people. The students expected to repay a median of $14,000 after they graduate, with 70% of this being due to the Australian government as part of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme. CONCLUSIONS: Although parents contributed an average of between one-third and one half of the costs of obtaining a veterinary degree, the extent of parental contributions was very uneven and almost one half of all students needed to work to provide basic necessities. The average total debt on graduation was about half the annual starting salary, but those starting the course from 1997 are subject to much higher charges, and their average debt is likely to exceed one year's salary.     

Accuracies of estimated breeding values from ordinary genetic evaluations do not reflect the correlation between true and estimated breeding values in selected populations

The accuracy of estimated breeding values (EBVs) is an important parameter in livestock genetic improvement. It is used to calculate response to selection and to express the credibility of individual EBVs. Although it is well-known that selection reduces accuracy, this effect is not well-studied and accuracies from genetic evaluations are not adjusted for selection. This work investigates the effect of selection on accuracy of EBVs estimated using best linear unbiased predictors. Results show that accuracies in a selected population may be considerably smaller than the ordinary accuracy from genetic evaluation. Accuracy of the parent average is dramatically reduced by selection, up to a factor of three. Expressions for equilibrium accuracies in selected populations are presented and depend only on the unselected accuracy and the intensity of selection. Thus, schemes with the same unselected accuracy and intensity of selection also have the same equilibrium accuracy and response to selection. At the same unselected accuracy, therefore, schemes based on between-family information do not show greater reduction in response and accuracy because of the Bulmer effect. An example shows that benefit of genomic selection may be underestimated when the effect of selection on accuracy is ignored. Finally, this work argues that the SE of an EBV and the correlation between true and EBVs are different things, and that accuracies should not be adjusted for selection when they primarily serve to indicate the SEs of EBVs.     

Longitudinal study of veterinary students and veterinarians: effects of growing up on a farm with animals

OBJECTIVE: To compare the career paths of veterinarians who had grown up on farms with animals with those of veterinarians from other backgrounds, during the first 15 years after they graduated. PROCEDURE: Questionnaires were completed by veterinary students in their first and fifth year, and after 1, 5, 10 and 15 years after they graduated. The most recent questionnaires were returned by 134 of 137 graduates, 20% of whom had grown up, or lived for at least two years, on farms where animals were a primary source of income. This paper includes findings from that questionnaire but also contains comparisons with previous ones. RESULTS: Fifteen years after they graduated, veterinarians who had grown up on farms with animals were more likely than those of other backgrounds to be living in centres with < 10,000 people (58% farm, 20% other), irrespective of the type of work they were doing. Although they were more likely to be doing no veterinary work (42% farm, 21% other), they were also more likely to be working in mixed practice (15% farm, 9% other) and with cattle and sheep generally (11% full time equivalent farm, 5% full time equivalent other). However, > 80% of those who had started their careers in mixed practice were no longer in mixed practice after 15 years. Veterinarians of farm origin who were in private practice were more likely to be sole or part owners (93% farm, 46% other) and less likely to be employees (7% farm, 54% other). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, veterinarians who had grown up on farms with animals seemed slightly more likely than those from other backgrounds to continue working in mixed practice and to work with cattle or sheep, although the numbers were small and the differences not significant. Whatever their background, the majority who started their careers in mixed practice left over the next few years, and by 15 years only 15% remained.     

Recent veterinary graduates over the last five decades: recollections and perceptions

OBJECTIVE: To describe the attitudes of veterinary graduates over the last 50 years to their experiences as recent graduates DESIGN: A questionnaire, sent by mail. PROCEDURE: A questionnaire seeking information on experiences as a recent graduate was sent to about 100 veterinarians who graduated in or about 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000, and 68% responded. Data were entered onto an Excel spreadsheet, and analysed with the SAS System 8 for Windows. RESULTS: Most veterinarians who graduated in 1970 and earlier were generally satisfied with their conditions, even though these were often taxing. In the 1970s the cattle industry faltered and rural practice suffered a downturn. Veterinary positions became scarce, and there were few opportunities for graduates to move on from an unsatisfactory workplace--as many were at that time. By 1980 many recent graduates were questioning their decision to study veterinary science. Many of them, working long hours under often stressful conditions, felt that that they were not receiving adequate help or support--or remuneration--from their employers, or respect from their clients. This also afflicted many who graduated in 1990, but by 2000 graduates were reporting an improvement. Their hours of work and the expectations placed on them were more manageable, and the level of help and support, and remuneration, were more acceptable. As a result they found their first year much more enjoyable than had those who had graduated since about 1970. Many of the factors contributing to this improvement resulted from changes in society generally. Specifically, both graduates and employers have become more conscious of what might reasonably be expected, an Award specified minimum levels, the AVA started accrediting New Graduate Friendly Practices, publishing a most informative New Graduate Guide, and helping in other ways. Remuneration, especially when compared with comparable professions, continues to be a source of discontent. Furthermore, despite improved conditions on average, many graduates still suffer under substandard conditions, and these can have an adverse effect on their health and their attitude to their career in veterinary science. CONCLUSIONS: Average conditions of employment of recent veterinary graduates have improved somewhat after a nadir in the 1970s and 1980s, but they are still substandard for some. Remuneration remains the greatest source of dissatisfaction for recent graduates.     

Prediction of response to marker-assisted and genomic selection using selection index theory

Selection index methods can be used for deterministic assessment of the potential benefit of including marker information in genetic improvement programmes using marker-assisted selection (MAS). By specifying estimates of breeding values derived from marker information (M-EBV) as a correlated trait with heritability equal to 1, it was demonstrated that marker information can be incorporated in standard software for selection index predictions of response and rates of inbreeding, which requires specifying phenotypic traits and their genetic parameters. Path coefficient methods were used to derive genetic and phenotypic correlations between M-EBV and the phenotypic data. Methods were extended to multi-trait selection and to the case when M-EBV are based on high-density marker genotype data, as in genomic selection. Methods were applied to several example scenarios, which confirmed previous results that MAS substantially increases response to selection but also demonstrated that MAS can result in substantial reductions in the rates of inbreeding. Although further validation by stochastic simulation is required, the developed methodology provides an easy means of deterministically evaluating the potential benefits of MAS and to optimize selection strategies with availability of marker data.     

The role of lectures in veterinary education

OBJECTIVE: To study the role of lectures from the perspective of staff and students involved in the veterinary course at The University of Queensland. METHODS: The Nominal Group Technique of Delbecq et al, which provides the maximum opportunity for group members to put forward points, was used to help develop a questionnaire which was completed by 351 students (a response rate of 84%) and 35 staff (76%) from the five years of the veterinary course, and was analysed using the SAS System for Windows. RESULTS: Almost all the staff and students agreed that lectures should fulfil many roles including stimulating and motivating students and encouraging them to think, as well as presenting ideas and concepts and an indication of the structure and relevance of the material. They should provide a guide for effective deep learning, but not encourage rote (or superficial) learning. A smaller percentage of staff and even fewer students agreed that lectures did fulfil these roles, especially those directed at encouraging students to look beyond simple memorisation of facts. The perceived disparity between reality and the ideal was greater amongst the older, clinical students than amongst their more junior colleagues. CONCLUSIONS: The focus of attention in lectures needs to change from the superficial, rote learning of information to deep, active learning directed at using information to solve problems that are perceived by the students to be relevant. If done in a stimulating and interesting way, this should develop skills in reasoning and critical analysis as well as providing a framework for storage and recall. It should also increase the motivation towards learning both during the veterinary course, and over the professional lifetime. Furthermore, the place of the lecture in veterinary education needs to be reassessed regularly in the face of newly-emerging educational technology.     

Longitudinal study of veterinary students and veterinarians: the first 20 years

OBJECTIVE: To describe the career paths of veterinary graduates from the University of Queensland during the first 15 years after they graduated, paying particular attention to the fifteenth year. PROCEDURE: Longitudinal study. Questionnaires were completed by 154 first year veterinary students in 1985 and 1986, then while they were in fifth year, and after 1, 5, 10 and 15 years after they graduated. This paper describes findings from the most recent questionnaire but includes comparisons with previous ones. RESULTS: Completed questionnaires were received from 134 of the 137 graduates. They were spread widely, but 58% were in Queensland and 20% in New South Wales; 17% were overseas. Most (85%) were in private practice, and 56% of them were part or sole owners; 58% were working in cities with > 100,000 people, and 28% in centres with < 10,000 people. Overall 80% of the workload of the group was with dogs and cats, 8% with horses and 11% with farm animals. Most felt that their income was too low. Of those doing less than half-time or no veterinary work, 44% were at home with family, 8% in another business, 11% another profession, and the rest in a wide variety of occupations. Changed interests, need for greater challenges, poor remuneration, loss of interest in veterinary work, and caring for family were, in order, the top five (of 15) reasons for leaving veterinary work. Three-quarters (78%) of all those doing veterinary work, but 52% of those no longer doing veterinary work agreed that their career had lived up to their expectations. CONCLUSION: After 15 years 77% were still doing veterinary work, 85% in private practice, and 80% of their work was with dogs and cats. Almost all were either very glad or generally glad that they had done the veterinary course, though most (78%) felt that their income was too low.     

Work-related stress in the veterinary profession in New Zealand

AIM: To investigate sources of work-related stress in the veterinary profession in New Zealand, perceptions of levels of stress being experienced, and the social support that veterinarians are using to manage work-related stress. METHODS: A postal survey was distributed to 1,907 veterinarians registered with the Veterinary Council of New Zealand (VCNZ). The survey collected information on respondents' age, gender, type and number of people in the workplace, stress levels, depression, suicidal thoughts and attempts, causes of stress and sources of support. RESULTS: Nine hundred and twenty-seven (48.6%) veterinarians returned useable responses. Veterinarians who were retired, working overseas or did not provide information about their type of work were excluded from the analysis, leaving data from 849 (44.5%) veterinarians. Women experienced more work-related stress and depression than men, veterinarians in small animal/mixed practice reported more stress and depression than those in other types of work, and younger veterinarians experienced higher levels of stress than older veterinarians. The main sources of stress were hours worked, client expectations, and unexpected outcomes. Respondents were also stressed by the need to keep up their knowledge and technical skills, and by personal relationships, finances and their expectations of themselves. Most respondents reported that they had good networks of family and friends to help them deal with stress. In general, respondents tended to rely on informal networks such as family and friends, other veterinarians and workmates to provide support. The small proportion of respondents who reported clinical depression or suicidal thoughts or attempts were more likely than respondents in general to have used health professionals, counselling, pastoral/spiritual support and the Vets in Stress phone line, but less likely to have sought support from employers and workmates. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for a wide range of strategies to manage work-related stress among veterinarians. Sources of stress in the workplace must be identified and strategies developed to control those which present a significant hazard. Strategies may include attention to workloads and working hours, design of work processes, and increasing social support. Training in work-related skills such as communication, conflict management and stress management may be helpful where lack of these skills is contributing to stress. Support services such as help lines and mentor schemes are also available and information about these needs to be more accessible.     

Efficient selection against categorically scored hip dysplasia in dogs is possible using best linear unbiased prediction and optimum contribution selection: a simulation study

Breeding to reduce the prevalence of categorically scored hip dysplasia (HD), based on phenotypic assessment of radiographic hip status, has had limited success. The aim of this study was to evaluate two selection strategies for improved hip status: truncation selection based on phenotypic record versus best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP), using stochastic simulation and selection scenarios resembling those in real dog populations. In addition, optimum contribution selection (OCS) was evaluated. Two traits were considered: HD (as a categorical trait with five classes and a heritability of 0.45 on the liability scale) and a continuous trait (with a heritability of 0.25) intended to represent other characteristics in the breeding goal. A population structure mimicking that in real dog populations was modelled. The categorical nature of HD caused a considerably lower genetic gain compared to simulating HD as a continuous trait. Genetic gain was larger for BLUP selection than for phenotypic selection in all scenarios. However, BLUP selection resulted in higher rates of inbreeding. By applying OCS, the rate of inbreeding was lowered to about the same level as phenotypic selection but with increased genetic improvement. For efficient selection against HD, use of BLUP breeding values should be prioritized. In small populations, BLUP should be used together with OCS or similar strategy to maintain genetic variation.     

AVMA guidelines for dealing with AIDS-infected persons in the veterinary workplace

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a human disease; human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) does not infect animals other than nonhuman primates. Veterinarians and their employees are no more at risk by reason of their employment than are workers in offices. Cautions for health care workers do not generally apply to animal health care workers, but they are good rules to follow if it is necessary to render first aid for human injuries in the workplace. Veterinarians are advised to have properly equipped first aid kits available in case of need. Employees with HIV infection or AIDS should be treated in the same way that any other ill or disabled employee would be treated. They should be given the opportunity to continue work as long as they are able to perform most of the essential functions of their jobs. Their privacy must be respected, but if their condition becomes known, they must not be discriminated against by employers or other employees. All employees should be instructed in basic information regarding HIV infection and AIDS, so they understand what is and is not a hazard. They should also be trained to deal safely with human injuries and be informed of their rights and the rights of other employees in case one of them is infected with HIV.     

A longitudinal study of veterinary students and recent graduates: 1. Backgrounds, plans and subsequent employment

Objective To examine factors that influence career choies by veterinary graduates.
Design Longitudinal study.
Population Students – 77 female and 77 males - who began studying veterinary science at The University of Queensland in 1985 and 1986.
Procedure Questionnaires were completed in the first and fifth year of the course, and in the second year after graduation. The data were arranged into an aggregated data set, then analysed using the SAS System for Windows.
Results These students chose veterinary science, many cases at an early age, because of their attitude towards animals rather than advice from other people. Most had extensive experience with animals, and many gained this in cities rather than on farms. Between half and two-thirds of them looked forward to a career in private practice when they were in first year. The proportion planning a career in private practice was highest for those who chose veterinary science before they were 12 years old. One-quarter of those in first year were undecided about what they would do after graduation. When they were surveyed in fifth year, most planned to enter mixed private practice at least initially. In fact, 59% entered mixed practice and 28% small animal practice. There were no significant relationships between prior experience with animals and either career plans or success in the job market. When asked in their second year after graduation, about half planned to continue in private practice over the longer term, and a quarter were undecided.
Conclusions The decision to study veterinary science is often made at a young age, and is influenced mainly by attitudes towards animals. The career path planned by the majority involves private practice, but for about a quarter the future is unclear, both when they enter the course and after they have worked as veterinarians.     

Simulation study on the effects of excluding offspring information for genetic evaluation versus using genomic markers for selection in dog breeding

Different modes of selection in dogs were studied with a special focus on the availability of disease information. Canine hip dysplasia (CHD) in the German shepherd dog was used as an example. The study was performed using a simulation model, comparing cases when selection was based on phenotype, true or predicted breeding value, or genomic breeding value. The parameters in the simulation model were drawn from the real population data. The data on all parents and 40% of their progeny were assumed to be available for the genetic evaluation carried out by Gibbs sampling. With respect to the use of disease records on progeny, three scenarios were considered: random exclusion of disease data (no restrictions, N), general exclusion of disease data (G) and exclusion of disease data for popular sires (P). One round of selection was considered, and the response was expressed as change of mean CHD score, proportion of dogs scored as normal, proportion of dogs scored as clearly affected and true mean breeding value in progeny of popular sires in comparison with all sires. When no restrictions on data were applied, selection on breeding value was three times more efficient than when some systematic exclusion was practised. Higher selection response than in the exclusion cases was achieved by selecting on the basis of genomic breeding value and CHD score. Genomic selection would therefore be the method of choice in the future.     

Longitudinal study of veterinary students and veterinarians: family and gender issues after 20 years

OBJECTIVE: To examine and compare some family issues and work experiences of males and females who graduated as veterinarians 15 years ago. PROCEDURE: Questionnaires were completed by 134 of 137 veterinarians who graduated 15 years ago, and who had been surveyed in their first and final years as students, and 1, 5, 10 and 15 years after they graduated. Comparisons were made with official statistics, information from earlier surveys in this longitudinal study, and data from a previously published national study. RESULTS: By 15 years after they graduated, 82% had been married or in a comparable long-term relationship, and 23% of these were to another veterinarian. Thirteen percent of those who had been married were now separated or divorced, and 50% of them had remarried, a similar proportion to official statistics for Australians of comparable age. Approximately 20% of both males and females were doing no veterinary work, but more males (68%) than females (37%) were doing veterinary work full time. Most who were doing veterinary work were in private practice, and of these, small animals represented 76% of the work of the males and 88% of the work of the females. Females in private practice were more likely to be employees, especially if working part time, but those working full time were just as likely as males to be practice owners. In general males earned more than females. CONCLUSION: By 15 years after graduation, the percentages of males and females doing some veterinary work are similar, although males are more likely than females to be working full time. Females and males in full time private practice are equally likely to be practice owners, but female owners and female employees earn less than comparable males. Males and females have similar attitudes to having done the veterinary course.     

Attitudes of farm consultants in the South Island of New Zealand towards the role of veterinarians in farm businesses

AIMS: To assess the attitude of dairy farm consultants to the role of veterinarians on dairy farms and whether they viewed veterinary advice as impartial, free from commercial bias and central to farm productivity and profitability.

METHODS: A telephone survey was commissioned in September 2014 of 36 full-time farm consultants in the Canterbury and Otago region of New Zealand using a pre-prepared questionnaire to explore their attitudes towards the veterinary profession. Of those approached, 25 completed the survey.

RESULTS: The consultants surveyed agreed or strongly agreed (21/23) that they were the custodians of animal health expenditure on farms, which was seen as an expense to be controlled (19/25 agreed or strongly agreed). This view was held more strongly (9/9 agreed or strongly agreed) by consultants with >5 years’ professional experience, compared to 10/16 consultants with ≤5 years’ experience. Most consultants (24/25) disagreed that they did not respect veterinary advice, but agreed (24/25) that veterinarians almost always had a vested interest in the advice that they gave. The role of veterinarians was seen by respondents to be mainly treatment of sick animals (22/25) and provision of animal health products (24/25), but not in maximising farm profitability (selected by 8/25 respondents). Consultants viewed their own roles as providing advice on the influence of animal health on farm profitability (21/25), nutrition (22/25) and reproduction (20/25). Most respondents (21/25) stated that reducing disease and animal health issues was important, but they (21/25) also identified a reduction in farm animal health expenditure as a measure of success. Only 7/25 consultants felt that they should work in partnership with veterinarians.

CONCLUSIONS: This was a small scale study from one region of New Zealand but it indicates that consultants are ambivalent about the role and value of working more closely with veterinarians, and about the benefit that veterinary intervention may bring to a farm’s profitability.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: More successful veterinary involvement on dairy farms will follow from a better understanding of how other rural professionals are involved in the farm’s management and in meeting the individual farmer’s goals and motivations.