Gmelina arborea– a viable species for smallholder tree farming in Indonesia?

Across Indonesia there are millions of hectares of degraded land in need of rehabilitation. There is interest at both the government and farmer level of converting some of these lands to more productive use, including growing trees. Smallholders often practice tree farming to generate income and traditionally cultivate a wide range of tree species in mixed agroforestry systems. Grown to satisfy both household needs and market demand, smallholder-produced timber might play a potentially important role in local markets. Tectona grandis, Swietenia macrophylla, and Paraserianthes falcataria are common smallholder timber species. Gmelina arborea (gmelina) is easy to cultivate and grow at the smallholder level. It has been widely grown in plantations in South and Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. However, gmelina is not yet a priority species with Indonesian smallholder farmers. Experience indicates that marketable small-diameter gmelina timbers can be produced in 7–10 years and that price compares well with that of Paraserianthes, the most widely grown short-rotation smallholder timber species in Indonesia. Most gmelina seed originates in Central Java, from where large quantities of seed are shipped annually to other parts of Indonesia. This seed is of uncertain quality, as seed sources are unidentified and seed collection guidelines are not used. It is recommended to establish smallholder plantations with seed of known quality. Gmelina holds promise as one component for a multi-species smallholder tree farming systems to produce short-rotation timbers for household use and local markets. Palabras clave: Agroforestales, Ensayos agrícolas, Producción de madera por pequeños propietarios, Rehabilitación de tierras, Selección de especies Resumen. A través de Indonesia, hay millones de hectáreas de terrenos degradados los cuales necesitan ser rehabilitados. Existe interés tanto al nivel gubernamental como al nivel de los agricultores, en convertir algunos de estos terrenos en sitios productivos, incluyendo la producción de árboles. Con frecuencia, para generar ingresos, los pequeños propietarios plantan árboles para cosecha y tradicionalmente cultivan un amplio rango de especies de árboles, en una variedad de sistemas agro-forestales. La madera de los pequeños propietarios, producida para satisfacer tanto las necesidades hogareñas como las demandas del mercado, puede jugar un papel potencialmente importante en los mercados locales. La Tectona grandis, la Swietenia macrophylla, y el Paraserianthes falcataria son especies comúnmente producidas por los agricultores. La Gmelina arborea (gmelina) es una especie de fácil cultivo y crecimiento al nivel de los pequeños propietarios, y se ha venido produciendo ampliamente en el sur, y el suroriente de Asia, incluyendo Indonesia. Sin embargo, la gmelina no es aún una especie de prioridad para los pequeños agricultores de Indonesia. La experiencia indica, que la madera de gmelina de pequeño diámetro puede salir al mercado en un período de 7–10 años y que el precio de esta madera es comparable con la madera del Paraserianthes, la cual es la especie de corta rotación más ampliamente utilizada por los pequeños propietarios en Indonesia. La mayoría de la semilla de la gmelina proviene de Java Central, de donde se envían anualmente grandes cantidades de semilla a otras partes de Indonesia. Esta semilla es de calidad incierta, ya que las fuentes de semilla no están identificadas y no se utilizan normas de colección de semillas. Se recomienda que las plantaciones de los pequeños propietarios sean establecidas con semilla de calidad conocida. La gmelina es prometedora como parte del sistema de cultivo de árboles de especies múltiples de los pequeños propietarios, para producir madera de corta rotación para ser utilizada localmente y enviada a mercados locales.     

Multi-temporal NDVI analysis using UAV images of tree crowns in a northern Mexican pine-oak forestOA

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles(UAV) for forest monitoring has grown significantly in recent years,providing information with high spatial resolution and temporal versatility.UAV with multispectral sensors allow the use of indexes such as the normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI),which determines the vigor,physiological stress and photo synthetic activity of vegetation.This study aimed to analyze the spectral responses and variations of NDVI in tree crowns,as well as their correlation...     

Is tree diversity an important driver for phosphorus and nitrogen acquisition of a young tropical plantation?

Many tropical plantations in Central America are monocultures of fast growing, mostly exotic species such as a teak, eucalypts and pines. This has been perceived as a problem for ecosystem stability, pest control, local biodiversity and long-term nutrient availability. In our study, we followed the effects of increasing tree diversity (1, 3 and 6 native species) on aboveground nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) pools in a young experimental biodiversity plantation (central Panama) over two subsequent years. Our results show a positive but not consistent net effect of biodiversity on the N and P pools, mainly explained by the complementarity effect. N and P use efficiencies strongly varied among the investigated tree species and the species richness gradient. Anacardium excelsum and Luehea seemannii were associated with higher N and P use efficiencies while Hura crepitans and Tabebuia rosea were less efficient in aboveground biomass production per unit N or P. Tree species tended to have lower P use efficiencies in the intermediate diversity level compared to monocultures and six-species mixtures. Although the environmental conditions explained a large part of the variation in the N and P pools (58%) in our experiment, we argue that incorporating tree mixtures in the management can bring additional benefits and improve tree growth and nutrient uptake as compared to the monocultures.     

The tree/crop interface — or simplifying the biological/environmental study of mixed cropping agroforestry systems

A key to understanding the biological potentials and restraints of agroforestry systems, and the environmental responses of plant components within them, is the tree/crop interface. All agroforestry systems can be studied by separating the growth and yield characteristics of the three basic sets of variables (a) the sole agricultural crop (b) the effects of the tree/crop interface on the crop and tree and (c) the growth of the tree as a whole crop.The interface can be studied wherever it occurs in natural situations, or conventional or systematic experimental layouts, but very simple forms of geometric layouts can be very space efficient.

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Resumer La interfase arbol/cultivo, o como simplificar los estodios biologicoambientales de sistemas mixtos de cultivos agrogorestales.La interface arbol/cultivo es la clave para entender el potencial y las limitaciones biologicas de los sistemas agroforestales, y de la respuesta ambiental de las plantas dentro de los mismos. Todos los sistemas agroforestales pueden ser estudiados separando las caracteristicas de crecimiento y rendimiento de los tres conjuntos basicos de variables: (a) el cultivo agricola solo; (b) los efectos de la interfase arbol/cultivo sobre el cultivo y los arboles; y (c) la plantation forestal sola.La interfase puede ser estudiada cuando ella ocurre en situaciones naturales, o en arreglos experimentales convencionales o sistematicos, pero formas simples de arreglos geometricos pueden ser muy eficientes en el uso del espacio.

     

Research advances in the study of Pistacia chinensis Bunge, a superior tree species for biomass energy

As a renewable energy, biomass energy has aroused wide attention and studies of this issue have become a hot topic throughout the world. Pistacia chinensis Bunge (Anacardiaceae) is a superior species for biomass energy with high oil content in seeds and wide geographic distribution. It is a dioeciously, deciduous arbor, flowering from March to April and bearing fruits from September to November. The classification, regional distribution and biological characteristics of P. chinensis are stated in this paper, then, research advances in the growth, breeding and physiology of this species are summarized. The problems in present studies are broached. Finally, a future direction for research is proposed.     

An “electronic nose” as a potential device for fire detection of forest product fire loads in enclosures

Abstract

Saving lives and properties are of primary importance in fire disasters. Unfortunately, current fire detectors are not fast enough to allow the detection of many fires, especially, at the smouldering stages. Some preliminary studies on laevoglucosan (LG), as an important product from cellulose degradation, have shown interesting properties and could be detected by devices classified as “electronic noses” (e-noses). In the present work, the mechanisms of pyrolysis of some ligno-cellulosic materials were investigated using thermo-gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and by a tube furnace with a view to determining the major degradation products from wood, white paper and cardboard samples. Additionally, an odour sensor, made of tin oxide semiconductor thin film, was employed to evaluate its sensitivity in detecting LG. It was found that LG can be readily found among the thermal degradation products of cellulosic materials in question, and that the metal oxide sensor employed was sufficiently sensitive in detecting its presence. Therefore, the work opens up the potential of using such a sensor as an “e-nose” for the early detection of fires stemming from forest product fire loads in storage places and in other enclosures.     

Analyses of stand structure as a tool for silvicultural decisions — a case study in a Quercus petraea — Sorbus torminalis stand

The study applies structural indices using the example of an oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) — chequer tree (Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz) stand in order to derive recommendations for the silvicultural treatment of Chequer trees. The investigated stand, located in the northern part of Bavaria, comprises eight tree species and four shrub species. Various indices were used to analyse the stand structure and the crown coverage frequency. It was shown that chequer trees, which are presently of high economic interest, are strongly oppressed in the upper layer and almost completely missing in the lower layers of the stand. The possible reasons for this finding and alternatives for the further management of the stand are discussed. Persistent and repeated thinnings in order to ensure sufficient crown development of the chequer trees seem to be essential for their survival.     

Is there a Nordic Model for the treatment of introduced tree species? A comparison of the use,policy, and debate concerning introduced tree species in the Nordic countries

This article compares the use, policy, and debate concerning introduced tree species in the five Nordic countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland). These countries have a long common history and are culturally similar. They are often framed under the benchmark of the “Nordic Model” or even the “Nordic Forestry Model”. Therefore, we hypothesize that the Nordic countries’ treatment of introduced tree species share common aspects, and that global environmental agreements and international currents in science and policy have reinforced these similarities. The comparison shows that globalization is strong and it seems, at least at a first glimpse, that the Nordic countries follow a kind of “Nordic Model” in their approach to introduced tree species. However, the history and importance of forestry, ecological conditions, afforestation campaigns, traditions of using introduced trees, understandings, and stakeholder positions have shaped different national and even regional path dependencies and circumstances. This, in turn, has transmuted international policy-making, regulations, and discussions into different specific ways to interpret, control, and implement the use of introduced trees in practice. This article concludes that global environmental agreements and international currents in science and policy adapt to diverse national contexts.     

Generalized height–diameter models—an application for major tree species in complex stands of interior British Columbia

Using permanent sample-plot data, selected tree height and diameter functions were evaluated for their predictive abilities for major tree species in complex (multiple age, size and species cohort) stands of interior British Columbia (BC), Canada. Two sets of models were evaluated. The first set included five models for estimating height as a function of individual tree diameter, the second set also included five models for estimating height as a function of individual tree diameter and other stand-level attributes. The inclusion of the BAL index (which simultaneously indicates the relative position of a tree and stand density) into the base height–diameter models increased the accuracy of prediction for all species. On average, by including stand level attributes, root mean square values were reduced by 30.0 cm. Based on the residual plots and fit statistics, these models can be recommended for estimating tree heights for major tree species in complex stands of interior BC. The model coefficients are documented for future use.     

The potential of alley farming in humid West Africa — a re-evaluation

Previously published hypothesis concerning the potential impact of alley farming on maize yields are re-examined relative to the humid regions of West Africa. When more realistic assumptions regarding the availability of organic nitrogen are used, it is concluded that alley farming may have potential in a wider range of maize yield environments in West Africa than previously proposed. A pragmatic approach to alley farming research is proposed, and the importance of on-farm research in the development of farmer friendly alley farming is stressed.(Former Agronomist, International Livestock Centre for Africa, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria)     

The coppice-with-standards silvicultural system as applied to Eucalyptus plantations — a review

We review the management of Eucalyptus species under a coppice-with-standards （CWS） silvicultural system. CWS management results in product diversification, permitting production of small and large scale timber from the same stand. Eucalyptus species are suitable candidates for CWS management because： there are large worldwide plantation areas, sprouting capacity is high, and eucalypts are multipur- pose species. We discuss （1） short rotation Eucalyptus coppice manage- ment for energy and pulping and （2） Eucalyptus seedling management for solid wood products. We review the literature and discuss experi- ences with Eucalyptus managed under the CWS system. We also assess projects dealing with Eucalyptus coppice management, stand density regulation, pruning, and stand and wood quality. The growth environ- ment of the standard trees （heavy competition up to the first harvest, free growth afterwards） coupled with long rotations （〉20 years） results in high quality logs for solid wood products. Early pruning should be ap- plied to enhance wood quality. We propose a system for the silvicultural management of Eucalyptus under the CWS system, elaborating on the consequences of initial planting density, site productivity, and standard tree densities as well as timing of basic silvicultural applications.     

The development of reforestation options for dryland farmland in south-western Australia: a review§

Current forest industries in south-western Australia are based on regrowth natural eucalypt forests and Pinus and Eucalyptus spp. plantations, and restricted to areas with >600 mm y^?1 annual rainfall. Dryland farming systems have been developed across 20 million ha in a zone with 300–600 mm y^?1 annual rainfall and a Mediterranean climate. This zone is beset with land degradation problems, such as salinity and wind erosion, and there has been considerable effort in the last three decades to develop reforestation options to stabilise the landscapes. Traditional forestry approaches using pulp wood or sawlog production in this zone have been limited by unfavourable economics driven by modest tree growth rates, large transport costs to processing and export facilities, and high labour costs. Given that salinity results from a disruption of the landscape water balance, reforestation has represented a major component in attempts to tackle the problem. Issues with reforestation include (1) obtaining sufficient scale of activity to impact watershed water balances, (2) obtaining a hydrological response without displacing farm production and rural communities and (3) gaining payment for non-forest benefits. This paper reviews the approaches that have been used to integrate trees into the dryland farming (300–600 mm y^?1 annual rainfall) systems of south-western Australia, and have resulted in at least 113 286 ha of reforestation. These included both traditional (pine and eucalypt sawlogs) and new (sandalwood, biodiversity restoration and carbon mitigation through bioenergy and carbon sequestration) projects. Ongoing investment has centred on carbon sequestration as this represents one of the few profitable options for the management of dryland salinity in this region. Approaches developed in this region to encourage farmland reforestation will be applicable in other dryland regions, particularly with the interest in using the land-sector to meet climate mitigation targets.     

The Organization and Management System of Closing Hillside for Forest as a Regeneration Project (CHFRP)

By investigation, the thesis analyses and summarizes the forming and developing of CHFRP In Xupu county. We select the Mayandong stock cooperation forest farm as object, adopt the methods such as semi-structure interview, analysing second data and surveying sample plots, analyse and study the process to clarify the property right, the profits allocated forms and the management forms. The results show that CHFRP can tentatively resolve the contradiction between the forestland using right scattered to every household and proper scale management demanded by forestry production. CHFRP can enhance economic result and stabilize the production form in countryside. The ecological result, economic result and social result of CHFRP are sufficient.     

Development of a joint system using a compressed wooden fastener I: evaluation of pull-out and rotation performance for a column—sill joint

Compressed wooden plates and dowels were used to connect members in post-and-beam structures as a substitute for a steel fastener. In order to take advantage of the characteristic properties of compressed wood and to achieve optimum joint performance, two compressed wooden plates were used in each joint to give multiple shear planes for each compressed wooden dowel. Consequently, this type of joint showed very good properties in pull-out and momen-trotation performance, and its engineering design could be further optimized. This joint is expected to be introduced to many kinds of structural systems, including long-span frame structures made of domestic timber found in Japanese residential houses.