Camelina oil as a fuel for diesel transport engines

A light commercial road vehicle fitted with a heated fuel line and tank was run on cold pressed and filtered camelina sativa seed oil and unheated mineral diesel fuel. It was found that the seed oil produced a maximum power at the road wheels of 43.25 kW and returned 12.57 km/l compared to 38.50 kW and 14.03 km/l for the mineral fuel. At an engine speed >2000 rpm and high loading, both smoke opacity and CO emitted from the exhaust was found to be approximately 50% lower with the seed oil than with the mineral fuel, however, NO was higher for the seed oil by almost 6% at engine speeds >3500 rpm, but similar <3500 rpm. The CO₂ and O₂ emissions were similar and NO₂ emitted was negligible for both fuels. The effect of heating at 170 °C on the camelina sativa seed oil was investigated and a significant increase in viscosity was observed which coincided with a reduction in the iodine value of the oil.     

Qualitative variation of Camelina sativa seed from different locations

Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz is a flexible oil-seed crop that can be grown under different climatic and soil conditions. To evaluate the effects of growth conditions on the quality of camelina seed, samples originating from 11 remote locations in Europe and in Scandinavia (6° W–25°E, 48–61°N) were analysed for content of oil, crude protein and crude fibre. The evaluation was restricted to three promising summer cultivars chosen from seven tested varieties/cultivars. Among the cultivars, a statistically significant variation in the content of oil and crude protein was found. The average content of oil in seed ranged from 39.6 to 44.1%/DM. The average content of crude protein ranged from 39.2 to 47.4%/f.f. DM, and the average content of crude fibre was 12.5–16.8%/f.f. DM. The general mean content of oil was 42.0%/DM, crude protein 43.6%/f.f. DM, and the content of crude fibre was 14.5%/f.f. DM. The variation in the quality of seed was ascribed partly to the cultivars and mainly to the combined effects of the climatic and soil conditions under which the crop was grown.     

Physicochemical properties of stillingia oil: Feasibility for biodiesel production by enzyme transesterification

The physicochemical properties, fatty acids profile and triglyceride compositions of the stillingia oil were analyzed. The stillingia oil was found to contain 98.79% neutral lipids, 0.22% phospholipids and 0.99% glycolipids, which exhibited varying contents of fatty acids. The major triglyceride was double linoleic acid linolenic acid triglyceride, which accounted for approximately 79.49% of the total triglycerides. Preparation of biodiesel from stillingia oil was investigated by enzyme transesterification with methanol as the acyl acceptor. The results showed that lipase type (Novozym 435, Lipozyme TLIM and Lipozyme RMIM), reaction systems (in solvent-free and tert-butanol system) and operational parameters (lipase loading, reaction time, temperature, and molar ratio of alcohol to oil) influenced the biodiesel yield. Fuel properties of biodiesel from stillingia oil were evaluated and all were in acceptable range for use as biodiesel in diesel engines, and had remarkable flash point and satisfactory cold flow properties. It was concluded that stillingia oil was an alternative potential feedstock oil for biodiesel production.     

Camelina sativa,a short gestation oilseed crop with biofuel potential: Opportunities for Indian scenario

Camelina is an oilseed crop which is being commercially produced globally as feedstock for biodiesel. Being a non-edible oil bearing low input crop owing to its low fertilizer and water requirement, fits well for biofuel production. In India, targets for biofuel blending has been set by New Biofuel Policy-2018 and to meet these targets efforts are being made to harness the potential of available feedstock in the country. Among these feedstock, contribution of short gestation oilseed bearing crop has been very important. Camelina has been introduced in India during 2009–10 as experimental crop by DIBER, DRDO. Since then various efforts have made to standardize the production technology of this crop under various agro-climatic regions of the country, crop improvement, oil quality analysis and development of high energy by-products. Camelina has various advantages to offer for Indian biofuel sector. This paper reviews the potential of this crop for Indian Biofuel scenario.     

一种高利用价值油料作物—亚麻荠的研究进展

本文在对亚麻荠的栽培和育种现状进行阐述的基础上,重点概括了其种子中两种主要化学成分油脂和蛋白,具体包括油脂含量和脂肪酸组成、脂质活性成分及降血脂作用、油脂在生物能源上的应用,蛋白含量和氨基酸组成、蛋白饼粕加工利用等方面的研究状况。最后分析了约束亚麻荠发展的因素,并提出了相应的建议。     

Rice bran, a potential source of biodiesel production in Indonesia

Biodiesel is a biodegradable, renewable, non-toxic and environmentally friendly alternative fuel. The cost of raw materials comprises 60-88% of the production cost in commercial biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters, FAMEs) production. Therefore, the use of low-cost raw material as a substrate and an in situ process for biodiesel production are being preferred. In this case, rice bran, which contains 13.5% oil, was an interesting substrate. In situ esterification of high-acidity rice bran with methanol and sulfuric acid catalyst was investigated. The individual and interaction effects of methanol to rice bran ratio, sulfuric acid catalyst concentration and reaction time on purity and recovery of biodiesel were discussed. Our results suggest that under the following operation conditions: methanol to rice bran ratio of 5 mL/g, sulfuric acid concentration in methanol of 1.5 vol.%, and reaction time of 60 min, an in situ esterification operated on rice bran could yield FAMEs with a high purity and recovery. By applying an in situ esterification with n-hexane/water extractions, Indonesia will be succesfull in obtaining biodiesel from rice bran up to 96,000 ton per year.     

Guayule as a feedstock for lignocellulosic biorefineries using ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) pretreatment

Natural rubber latex extraction from guayule leaves behind greater than 90% (by weight) of agricultural residue as a feedstock suitable for conversion to biofuels via a thermochemical or biochemical route. Untreated guayule shrub and bagasse (after latex extraction) has shown to be very recalcitrant to enzymatic hydrolysis, necessitating application of a chemical pretreatment to enhance cellulase accessibility. The objective of this work was to carry out detailed compositional analysis, ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX¹) pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation for various guayule-derived biomass fractions. Plant feedstocks tested were derived from two sources; (a) a mature 2007 AZ-2 whole guayule shrub plant obtained from USDA/ARS² research fields, and (b) the guayule latex-extracted commercial grade bagasse (62505) from Yulex Corporation. Compositional analysis and enzymatic hydrolysis were carried out using standard NREL³ protocols (www.nrel.gov/biomass/analytical_procedures.html). AFEX pretreatment was carried out using concentrated ammonium hydroxide at elevated temperatures for desired residence times in a pressurized reactor. Yeast fermentations on biomass hydrolyzates were carried out micro-aerobically using Saccharomyces cerevisiae (424A strain) in shake flasks.AFEX pretreatment was found to substantially improve overall enzymatic digestibility by 4-20 fold for both untreated guayule shrub and latex-extracted bagasse. Maximum glucan and xylan conversion achieved for the latex-extracted bagasse was 40% and 50%, respectively. The yeast was readily able to ferment both glucose and xylose to ethanol from the guayule bagasse hydrolyzate with or without external nutrient supplementation (i.e., yeast extract and tryptone). Our results highlight the possible utilization of guayule as a feedstock for lignocellulosic refineries co-producing natural rubber latex and biofuels. However, further process improvements (e.g., lignin/resin extraction and cellulose decrystallization using a modified AFEX process) are necessary to increase the effectiveness of ammonia-based pretreatments for further enhancing enzymatic digestibility of guayule-derived hardwood biomass.     

Preparation of biodiesel from Idesia polycarpa var. vestita fruit oil

The feasibility of producing biodiesel from Idesia polycarpa var. vestita fruit oil was studied. A methyl ester biodiesel was prepared from refined I. polycarpa fruit oil using methanol and potassium hydroxide (KOH) in an alkali-catalyzed transesterification process. The experimental variables investigated in this study were catalyst concentration (0.5–2.0 wt.% of oil), methanol/oil molar ratio (4.5:1 to 6.5:1), temperature (20–60 °C) and reaction time (20–60 min). A maximum yield of over 99% of methyl esters in I. polycarpa fruit oil biodiesel was achieved using a 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 1.0% KOH (% oil) and reaction time for 40 min at 30 °C. The properties of I. polycarpa fruit oil methyl esters produced under optimum conditions were also analyzed for specifications for biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines according to China Biofuel Systems Standards. The fuel properties of the I. polycarpa fruit oil biodiesel obtained are similar to the No. 0 light diesel fuel and most of the parameters comply with the limits established by specifications for biodiesel.     

Field evaluation and break-even analysis of specialty soybeans for biodiesel and meal protein production

The economic value of a soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] crop depends on yield and quality. The objectives of this study were to evaluate soybean lines for protein and oil content and to examine the break-even (BE) analysis of these traits combined with yield. Forty lines of maturity group (MG) IV or V were grown at four Arkansas locations for two years. Yield, protein, and oil content of each line were determined and compared to the check average for a BE comparison of the total economic value of the line. Results showed six profitable lines ($8.40 to $54.96 per metric ton based on yield) in 2008 and six profitable lines ($0.49 to $61.19 per metric ton based on yield) in 2009. Overall, in both MG, high-protein lines needed to yield more to be profitable, whereas high-oil lines had competitive yield, protein and oil content; R00-764 (MG IV), R05-71 (MG V), and R02-6185F (MG V) were competitive without added premiums.     

Effect of irrigation schedule on growth and seed yield of camelina (Camelina sativa L.) in Tarai region of central Himalaya

Camelina(Camelina sativa)has emerged as a potential biofuel crop globally with its suitability even as a jet fuel source with 75–80%less greenhouse gas emissions compared to common petroleum fuels.The crop has originated from Mediterranean region and belongs to Brassicaceae family.DIBER,DRDO has made initial and pioneer efforts in successful introduction of this crop to India and its agro-technology standardization.Being a short duration crop with lesser input requirement,it fits well in the cropping pattern of hilly states of Indian Himalaya.These areas experience fallow land due to shortage of irrigation water for growing other crops.The present study revealed that irrigation at flowering stage is more beneficial.Irrigation at this stage(if only one irrigation is available)exhibited grain yield of 1.004 kg·m^-2which was 21 and 80%higher over pod setting and rosette stage irrigation,respectively.The maximum seed yield was observed under treatment where irrigation was provided at all three crop growth stages(2.044 kg·m^-2).It was 50%higher over T6 treatment(where two irrigations were given at rosette and flowering stage)and 104%higher over T3(where only one irrigation was given at flowering stage).     

Seed oils rich in linolenic acid as renewable feedstock for environment-friendly crosslinkers in powder coatings

In the work described, seed oils rich in linolenic acid were used for the synthesis of aliphatic oxiranes. The oils studied were linseed (Linum usitatissimum) oil, Canadian linseed oil and the oil of Lallemantia iberica. The oils contained 54.1, 60.2 and 68.0% of linolenic acid, respectively, and showed high theoretical iodine values of 211, 226 and 236 g/hg. Unsaturations in the oils were used to introduce epoxides by epoxidation with in situ generated peroxyacetic acid. The epoxidized oils, showing high percentages of oxirane oxygen (9.4, 10.0 and 10.7%), were applied as crosslinkers in powder-coating formulations. The major advantage of these types of crosslinkers is that they are neither toxic nor mutagenic, in contrast with the widely applied synthetic triglycidyl isocyanurate (TGIC) crosslinkers. However, two potential problems exist when aliphatic oxiranes are compared with conventional TGIC systems. A decrease in glass transition temperature (T_g) of the powder formulation and a higher degree of yellowing of the coating are often observed. In this paper the effects of using oils containing high linolenic acid contents on the yellowing of the coating and the T_g of the powder, are studied. It appeared that aliphatic oxiranes are suitable as environment-friendly crosslinkers in powder-coating systems.     

Biotechnological production of oil: Fatty acid composition of microbial oil

The fatty acid profile and the fatty acid composition of microbial lipids obtained from molds revealed that oil from Aspergillus sydowii, Fusarium oxysporum and F. equisetti had a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, and had a similarity to the edible oils, groundnut and palm oil. This study sheds light on the possibilities of exploring the use of these oils as supplement to other edible fats and for other non-edible industrial purposes.     

Characterization of biodiesel and bio-oil from Sterculia striata (chicha) oil

This work describes the mechanical and solvent extraction of Sterculia striata seed oil. It was determined that the seeds contain up to 41% in oil, which has an unusual composition. Indeed, up to 50% of the fatty acid contain cyclopropenoid ring. The oil was used as raw material to produce bio-oil and biodiesel and their physical-chemical properties were evaluated. Some of the studied physical-chemical properties of the S. striata biodiesel are in acceptable range for use as biodiesel in diesel engines, showing a promising economic exploitation of this raw material in semi-arid regions. It was also observed that the cyclopropenoid ring remains after transesterification and is decomposed during pyrolysis.     

Evaluation of a dry corn fractionation process for ethanol production with different hybrids

The effect of a specific dry fractionation process (FWS fractionation process) was evaluated on final ethanol and glucose concentration of 11 yellow dent corn hybrids in this dry grind corn process. In dry fractionation a dry de-germ de-bran process (similar to conventional corn dry milling) is used to separate germ and pericarp (bran) fiber prior to fermentation of the endosperm (grit) fraction. Fermentation results of grits produced from the FWS process were similar to whole corn samples and better than previously reported results on fermentation of grits from other dry fractionation processes. Further investigation showed that the amount of fat in FWS fractionated grits were 2–5 times more than grit samples from a commercial corn dry milling plant; suggesting reduced germ separation with more than 50% of germ not recovered and lost with the grits fraction. Final ethanol concentration for different corn hybrids varied from 12.7 to 13.8% (v/v) for whole corn and 13.4 to 14.7% (v/v) for grits samples. Dry fractionation (removal germ and bran) prior to dry grind processing, significantly affects the fermentation characteristics of corn hybrids. Corn dry fractionation can increase final ethanol concentration and recover germ and fiber as valuable coproducts.     

阳离子交换树脂催化制备生物柴油的工艺优化

以油菜籽油加工下脚料为原料,运用正交实验设计方法对Ｄ００２阳离子交换树脂催化制备生物柴油工 艺参数进行优化。最佳操作参数为：反应温度７０℃、催化剂用量为１０％、油／醇质量体积比１∶０．６,反应时间为４ｈ。 验证实验表明,生物柴油转化率达９７．３％。同时,还比较了Ｄ００２阳离子交换树脂作催化剂与浓硫酸作催化剂制备 生物柴油的效果。     

橘林油脂酵母发酵条件的初步研究

以橘林油脂酵母（Lipomyces kononenkoae CICC1714）为实验材料,通过设计单因素实验,确定了摇瓶发酵培养的最佳产油条件为：氮源为硫酸铵,碳源为葡萄糖,培养温度28℃,接种量10%,初始pH值为7.0,最适碳氮比为99。优化后批次发酵的生物量为7.01g/L,油脂含量15.91%,油脂产量1.12g/L。经半连续发酵后最终的生物量为24.13g/L,油脂产量为3.06g/L。     

Evaluation of propionic acid-treated hay as a feed for growing sheep

Two experiments were carried out to evaluate propionic acid-treated hay as a feed for sheep in which eighteen ewes (experiment 1) and eighteen ewe lambs (experiment 2) were fed ad libitum on hay only. At feeding, the propionic acid-treated hays had higher D-values and water-soluble carbohydrate concentrations, but a lower dry matter concentration, than the untreated hays. The voluntary feed intake and liveweight gain of the sheep fed on two acid-treated hays and on an untreated hay in experiment 1 were similar. In the second experiment an acid-treated moist hay was eaten in greater amounts by the sheep and liveweight gains were greater than on the corresponding untreated hay, but were not significantly different from those of sheep fed on field-cured hay.     

Flavor and chemical evaluation of partially hydrogenated sunflower oil as a potato chip frying oil

A partially hydrogenated sunflower oil was compared with a cottonseed-corn oil mixture for frying potato chips. Chips fried in each oil were organoleptically evaluated at two-week intervals during 10 weeks of storage at room temperature. Statistical evaluation of the hedonic ratings of the chips indicated no significant difference in flavor between the chips fried in sunflower oil and those fried in cottonseed-corn oil. Paired comparison testing of chips stored for 2 and 10 weeks indicated no preference for chips fried in the cottonseed-corn oil mixture over those fried in the hydrogenated sunflower oil. The oil content of the chips fried in both oils ranged from 37.6 to 42.9% suggesting an excessive absorption of oil by the chips. The peroxide values of the oils extracted from the potato chips indicate a trend toward greater autoxidation of the cottonseed-corn oil mixture compared to the sunflower oil. During storage, changes in the fatty acid composition of oils extracted from potato chips were minor. Chemical evaluation of oil samples taken during frying runs showed that both oils were of good quality after 23 hours of frying chips.     

Characterisation of agricultural residues used as a source of fibres for fibre-cement production

Nowadays, certain components of non-wood annual plants such as corn stalk and industrial hemp core are considered waste materials or used in low value applications; both by-products have a very low cost. On the other hand, given the large quantities of these materials generated worldwide and their renewable character, it is reasonable to explore new routes for their exploitation. The aim of this paper is to study the potential of both corn stalk (Zea Mays L.) and industrial hemp core (Cannabis Sativa L.) fibres as a renewable source of cellulose fibres in the production of fibre-cement. For each source of fibres, a number of chemical cooking treatments were studied. The morphological properties of the fibres were determined using a scanning electron microscope and a fibre and pulp morphological analyser. Pulp refining was carried out in a PFI mill to improve the characteristics of the fibres. In the case of corn fibres, different degrees of refining were applied. The fibre flocculation process was investigated using several polyacrylamides. The process was studied by monitoring the chord size distribution in real time by means of a focused beam reflectance measurement probe.The results indicated that both pulps can be used for the production of fibre-cement, having the two types of pulp morphological similarities with the pine fibres currently used.Through the flocculation process it was concluded the floc size depends on the length of the fibres.     

Epoxidized soybean oil as a potential source of high-temperature lubricants

Development and application of biocompatible lubricants are increasing daily as a result of stringent regulations imposed on mineral oil-based lubricants with their non-biodegradable toxic wastes. Before consumer acceptance of vegetable oil-based lubricants, they must overcome certain poor performance characteristics such as thermal and oxidative instabilities. This work demonstrates the improved performance of epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO) over soybean oil (SBO) and genetically modified high oleic soybean oil (HOSBO) in certain high temperature lubricant application. We validated the thermal and deposit forming tendencies of these oils using micro-oxidation and differential scanning calorimetry in conjunction with identification of oxidized products by infrared spectroscopy and also discussed the function of a phenolic antioxidant in these oils. Boundary lubrication properties under high load and low speed were determined and the variations explained based on the structural differences of these vegetable oils.