Dynamics of nonstructural carbohydrates and biomass yield in a fodder legume tree at different harvest intensities

Tropical tree fodder is harvested by frequent prunings, and resprouting depends on nonstructural carbohydrate reserves in the remaining tree parts. We studied the effects of three pruning intensities (removal of all leaves and branches leaving 1 m of stem once a year (T-12), or every 6 months (T-6), and about 50% pruning every 2 months (P-2)) on regrowth and the dynamics of soluble sugars and starch in the legume tree Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. growing under humid tropical conditions in Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles. Carbohydrates were sampled in roots, stems and branches. Among pruned trees, trees in the T-6 harvest regime had the highest leaf fodder yield (0.73 kg tree(-1) year(-1)). High litter loss reduced leaf yield of T-12 trees, but compared with the other treatments, T-12 trees produced the most branch biomass (3.43 kg tree(-1)). Among treatments, P-2 trees had an intermediate leaf fodder yield and the lowest branch production. Sucrose, glucose and fructose were the most common sugars in all biomass compartments. Mannose, pinitol and an unidentified cyclitol were relatively abundant in branches. Root sugar and starch concentrations were unaffected by harvest regime. There was a significant interactive effect of harvest intensity and regrowth time on stem sugar concentration. Stem starch concentration was highest in T-12 trees. After a year of fodder harvesting, whole-tree reserves of nonstructural carbohydrates were highest in T-12 trees; however, a larger proportion of reserves were located in roots and stems of T-6 and P-2 trees. These reserves, which were not lost in pruning and contributed to regrowth of G. sepium after pruning, may explain the relatively small effects of harvesting regime on soluble sugar and starch concentrations.     

Tree growth and management in Ugandan agroforestry systems: effects of root pruning on tree growth and crop yield

Tree root pruning is a potential tool for managing belowground competition when trees and crops are grown together in agroforestry systems. We investigated the effects of tree root pruning on shoot growth and root distribution of Alnus acuminata (H.B. & K.), Casuarina equisetifolia L., Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br., Maesopsis eminii Engl. and Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. and on yield of adjacent crops in sub-humid Uganda. The trees were 3 years old at the commencement of the study, and most species were competing strongly with crops. Tree roots were pruned 41 months after planting by cutting and back-filling a trench to a depth of 0.3 m, at a distance of 0.3 m from the trees, on one side of the tree row. The trench was reopened and roots recut at 50 and 62 months after planting. We assessed the effects on tree growth and root distribution over a 3 year period, and crop yield after the third root pruning at 62 months. Overall, root pruning had only a slight effect on aboveground tree growth: height growth was unaffected and diameter growth was reduced by only 4%. A substantial amount of root regrowth was observed by 11 months after pruning. Tree species varied in the number and distribution of roots, and C. equisetifolia and M. lutea had considerably more roots per unit of trunk volume than the other species, especially in the surface soil layers. Casuarina equisetifolia and M. eminii were the tree species most competitive with crops and G. robusta and M. lutea the least competitive. Crop yield data provided strong evidence of the redistribution of root activity following root pruning, with competition increasing on the unpruned side of tree rows. Thus, one-sided root pruning will be useful in only a few circumstances.     

不同栽植时期对苹果苗木成活及生长的影响

为了指导河北省滦平县的苹果栽植,以3a生国光苹果苗木为试材,研究了不同栽植时期苗木的成活率及生长情况,结果表明,4月8日栽植的苗木成活率、下部小主枝上的长梢数分别为92.67%、9.26个,极显著高于4月15日和4月22日栽植的处理;新梢平均长度为39.93cm,显著高于4月15日和4月22日栽植的处理;单株长梢数13.73个,显著高于4月22日栽植的处理。4月15日栽植的苗木成活率、下部小主枝萌芽率、下部小主枝上的长梢数分别为75.67%、39.71%、7.58个,极显著高于4月22日栽植的处理;单株中梢数为14.95个,显著高于4月22日栽植的处理。3个栽植时期的地径、单株短梢数和叶丛枝数无显著差异。表明4月8日栽植苹果苗木的生长情况优于后面的2个时期,在滦平县4月份内栽植苹果苗木应越早越好。     

苹果改良纺锤形树形整形修剪技术研究

对当年定植的苹果幼树刻芽定干，提高了整形带内的萌芽率和发枝率，以刻3芽和刻4芽效果最好。作小主枝缓放处理的1a生枝在基部刻枝条的侧芽、背下芽，在刻芽数占总芽数的1／5、1／3、2／3等3个处理中，随刻芽数增加萌芽率提高，以刻2／3芽的处理萌芽率最高，达91.1%；作小主枝的1m以下的1a生枝极重短截，可极明显地促发壮枝，年生长量可达145.7cm;小主枝基产重环剥可控制旺梢生长,利于花芽分化,提高成花率;对基部小主枝的侧生分枝拉枝、刻芽，可提高萌芽率和中、短枝比例。采用改良纺锤形整形的乔砧矮化密植2001苹果，栽后第2年见花，第3年就有一定产量，第4年进入初结果期，单株产量可达32.8kg。     

Establishing trees in an Appalachian silvopasture: response to shelters, grass control, mulch, and fertilization

In order to successfully introduce trees into existing pastures, it is important to determine and recommend a whole range of tree establishment practices. In the spring of 1995, approximately 350 bare-root seedlings each of black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) and honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos L.) were planted in six randomized paddocks within a silvopastoral study area at the Agroforestry Research and Demonstration Site in Blacksburg, Virginia. Three seedling establishment studies were tested, including (1) a tree protection study, (2) a water retention study, and (3) a fertilization study. Seedlings were planted using two different tree shelters (60 cm-tall poultry wire cage and 1.2 m-tall plastic Tubex), two water retention treatments (mulch and herbicide spray), and one fertilizer treatment. All treatments were compared to untreated controls. Tree survival, damage, and stem volume were compared for each species. Tree survival was comparable among all studies over three growing seasons. Tree establishment using poultry wire and Tubex shelters resulted in significant reduction of deer damage and significant increase in stem volume from 1996 to 1998. Tubex shelters had a pronounced positive impact on tree height and also on stem form; height of both black walnut and honeylocust was twice the height of control seedlings. Mulch and herbicide treatments for moisture control resulted in significant stem volume increases over thecontrol treatment from 1997 to 1998. However, mulching was less effective than the herbicide treatment. There was no significant tree growth response resulting from fertilization during this same period. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Establishment success of conservation tree plantations in relation to silvicultural practices in Indiana,USA

In the Central Hardwood Forest region of the United States, the variable and somewhat unpredictable establishment success of hardwood tree plantations has traditionally been attributed to competing vegetation and damage due to animal browse. We examined operational plantation establishment success (1–5 years following planting) as it relates to use of particular silvicultural practices. Silvicultural histories were obtained for 87 randomly selected plantations throughout Indiana and field data were collected from each to determine tree survival, tree vigor, and abundance of surrounding vegetation. Survival was highest at sites that were treated with herbicide prior to planting and that had been mechanically planted (as opposed to hand planted). The percentage of trees with evidence of dieback was highest on sites at which browse protection measures had been used, likely reflecting a combination of damage due to inherently high white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) populations at such sites and ineffectiveness of current browse protection measures. Sites planted by a professional forester and those with herbicide applied subsequent to planting had a higher percentage of trees deemed free-to-grow. Subsequent herbicide application did not reduce cover or height of competing vegetation; however, when used in conjunction with mechanical site preparation techniques, overall cover and height of herbaceous vegetation was reduced.     

Impact of artificial pruning on growth and secondary shoot development of wild cherry (Prunus avium L.)

Producing high value veneer wood requires that the tree bole be branch-free. This can be accomplished by natural or artificial pruning. Since wild cherry does not self prune well, pruning artificially is the only practical option. The study analysed the effect of conventional whorl-wise pruning and selective pruning, on height growth, diameter growth and secondary shoot development of wild cherry. Four pruning treatments were applied on cherry trees in summer 2007, one group of cherries was left unpruned to serve as a control: treatment C1 (upper 5 whorls left), C2 (upper 3 whorls left), S1 (removal of branches larger than 3 cm or with an angle to the stem < 40°), S2 (removal of branches larger than 2 cm or with an angle to the stem < 40°), N (unpruned). Data showed that height growth was not affected by pruning. In contrast, diameter growth at breast height of the C2 pruned cherry was reduced by approximately 5% (SE = 2.7%) in the year of pruning (trees were pruned in July). This pruning treatment produced significant (p = 0.028) nine percent less diameter growth than the control in the second year following pruning. The diameter increment of the C1 pruned trees with five whorls left after pruning and the selective pruned cherries were only about 4% (SE = 4.0%) smaller than the control after two years. This loss was statistically not significant. Analyses showed that on selective pruned trees the survival rate of secondary shoots was significantly reduced compared to those on whorl-wise pruned trees. Significant differences in the size of the secondary shoots were only found between the C1 and S1 (p < 0.05) pruned trees. We did not find differences in the total number of secondary shoots per tree among pruning treatments. Solely from a tree growth perspective, the moderate whorl-wise pruning treatment C1 and the selective prunings were equally effective in minimizing the reduction of diameter growth and are recommended in practice. However it was found that the survival of secondary shoots was reduced on selective pruned trees although the amount of pruning work needed in selective pruning was slightly greater than conventional moderate pruning.     

Tree/crop complementarity in an arid zone runoff agroforestry system in northern Kenya

We tested the hypothesis that shallow-rooted crops and deep-rooted trees will share the available water in a complementary manner, when grown together, in a field trail in the Turkana district of northern Kenya during 1994 to 1996. Such studies have been few in dryland agroforestry. The effects of two different Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. Wendl. tree planting densities (2500 and 833 trees per ha), tree pruning (no pruning vs. pruning) and annual intercrops (no intercrop vs. intercrop) on total biomass production and their interactions were tested. In 1996 Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench was used during the first vegetation period and Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. during the second. We used naturally generated runoff water for irrigation to supplement low rainfall amounts typical for the area. High biomass production (> 13 t ha^–1 over a two year period) was observed irrespective of intercropping of pruned trees or sole tree stands. Although the pruning treatment reduced total tree biomass yields by a quarter, the introduction of annual intercrops after the pruning of trees outweighed this loss. The yields of the intercrops in the pruned tree treatments were similar to their yields when grown as monocrops. The calculation of land equivalent ratios showed overyielding for intercropped, pruned systems. The high values for LER (1.36 at low and 1.47 at high density of trees) indicate that there is complementarity in resource use between the different species.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

插穗粗度对无花果育苗影响的初步研究

无花果是第三代新兴水果。为了更好地推动其发展,笔者亲自做了插穗粗度对无花果扦插育苗影响的试验研究。试验结果表明,插穗粗度对无花果扦插育苗的成活率、生长状况及商品苗率均有影响。为大量培育无花果苗.提供了可靠的理论依据。     

Induced competition among scots pine seedlings and its effect on future timber quality

Height and diameter increment and timber quality in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) planted as seedlings of different sizes were studied in two experiments. When compared 32–37 years after planting, seedlings that were smaller than neighbouring seedlings at the time of planting, had generally attained lower height and diameter, and had higher mortality compared to seedlings that were of equal size or larger than their neighbours. Tree size was strongly related to seedling size two years after planting. Trees originating from small seedlings had thinner annual rings and branches than trees originating from large seedlings. These characters are of importance for timber quality. It seems that the competitive ability of a tree is to a large extent established early in stand development.     

广西玉林市北流镇乡村行道树配置对策研究

在分析国内外行道树的种植历史以及现代行道树的栽植现况的基础上,以北流市北流镇乡村为例,对种植行道树带来的效益及北流镇乡村的行道树种开展研究。研究发现行道树可提供遮荫场所、美化乡村环境,具备生态效益。行道树树种选择时要注意优先选择乡土树种,同时树种应具备美学、生态价值以及安全性。北流镇地处亚热带地区,同时水网密布,北流镇乡村需要种植行道树的地方可分为三类：水边、建筑旁和人群聚集地,以此提出北流镇乡村行道树种植对策。     

修枝对华北落叶松人工林分生长的初期影响

以河北省围场县木兰林管局管辖区的新丰林场试验林为基础,分析了修枝强度以及修枝剩余物的不同处理对华北落叶松人工林生长及冠层变化的影响。修枝强度设置3种,强(冠高比4/5)、中(冠高比7/10)、弱(冠高比3/5);对修枝剩余物处理分别为放置、清理、粉碎,并设置对照。结果表明:不同程度的修枝对林木的胸径生长率均有一定的提高作用,其中,中度修枝对林木胸径、树高生长率的促进和Vissky系数的提高较为明显;针对修枝剩余物不同处理试验的初期结果显示,粉碎处理和清理处理的林分,有利于林木胸径生长率的提高,放置处理的林分更有利于提高林木树高生长率。     

The carbon sink provided by plantation forests and their products in Britain

The rate of accumulation of carbon in forest plantations inBritain is estimated using the record of forest planting since1925 and a model that calculates the flow of carbon from theatmosphere to trees, litter, soil, wood products and back tothe atmosphere. It is assumed that all trees planted so farhave the carbon accumulation characteristics of P. sitchensis,Yield Class 14 m³ ha^-1 a^-1, but that future planting could includeF. sylvatica Yield Class 6 and Populus Yield Class 12. It isfurther assumed that conifer plantings increase surface litter,but not soil organic matter, whereas broadleaved tree plantings(on mineral soils) increase both. Because the current forest estate is relatively young, it isestimated to be accumulating about 2.5 million tonnes of carbonper year (1990), and to be still increasing in carbon density(tonnes C ha^-1). In order to maintain this rate of carbon removalfrom the atmosphere, planting would need to continue at a rateof 25–30 thousand ha of conifers or (theoretically) 10thousand ha of poplars per year (on good mineral soils). Itis noted that 2.5 million tonnes C is about 1.5 percent of theUK carbon emission, and may be similar to the natural carbonsink in Britain represented by wetlands and rivers.     

大樱桃壮旺幼树不同修剪方法和促花技术试验

为了研究整形修剪对大樱桃早期丰产的影响,通过稀植园和密植园大樱桃壮旺幼树的修剪试验,明确长放修剪方法可节省用工,有利于树体生育,成花早、株产高,尤其适用于密植园的大樱桃栽培。开始采用长放修剪的树龄,密植园大樱桃树宜在2～3年生,稀植园樱桃树宜在株问粗距1．5～2m时进行,截放修剪方法适用于即需扩冠又要较早结果的大樱桃壮旺幼树。短截修剪方法修剪量大,不利于大樱桃壮旺幼树的生长发育,结果晚,株产低,且费工,但对栽后缓苗期树或衰弱树还是适用的。刻芽枝条上叶丛皲数量明显增加,花束状果枝增加。摘心的长枝花枝率和后下部叶丛枝的花枝率明显增加。     

Influence of mulching and tree shelters on 4-year survival and growth of zeen oak (Quercus canariensis) seedlings

We assessed the effect of mulching and tree shelters on the establishment and early growth of zeen oak(Quercus canariensis Willd.) during the first 4 years after planting in Northwestern Tunisia. Five mulch types(Italian Stone Pine(Pinus pinea L.), Lentisk(Pistacia lentiscus L.),and a combination of Italian Stone Pine and Lentisk(organic mulches), gravel(inorganic mulch) and control), and three tree shelter types(non-vented and vented tree shelters, and control) were tested. An increase in the number of internodes occurred under the gravel mulch, while a reduction in survival was found for the lentisk mulch. Tree shelters had no effect on survival, but increased mean height growth and reduced mean diameter growth during the 4 years(excepting a non-significant effect for vented tree shelter at year four). Comparison of the annual shoots and growth units(GU) between sheltered and unsheltered plants according to year of formation revealed two growth phases. In first phase, shoots were totally or partially inside the shelters; mean length of annual shoots and GU were greater for sheltered plants. The second phase was characterized by shoots emerging from shelters; mean length of annual shoots and GU were similar for all plants, with or without tree shelters. Results suggest that the use of tree shelters, particularly vented shelters, could contribute to the improvement of the artificial regeneration of zeen oak.The use of mulching alone or in combination with tree shelters did not improve zeen oak performance in the field.     

"三北"地区国外灌木树种引进

1998—2002年共引进国外灌木种批76个、58种，其中41个种在青海天然分布区之外，为首次引进新属、新种或新品种。将引进种批经催芽处理后，分别按引进年度进行春播或秋播。共有54个种批出苗，占总引进种批的78．9％。分别在理水渡域的西宁和黄河流域的循化两地建立定植圃。西宁定植苗木41种，正常开花结实的有8种；生长正常无干梢的有8种；干梢较严重，但第二年萌发出新枝的有7种；不能越冬巳被淘汰的有3种。循化定植苗木37种，正常开花结实的有9种；生长正常无干梢的有11种；干梢较严重，但第二年萌发出新枝的有4种。在初步选择的适应音海东部的树种中，可用于退耕还林、荒山治理的生态型树种有6种，可用于庭院及四旁绿化的园林型树种有12种。     

Direct impacts of sheep upon Douglas-fir trees in two agrosilvopastoral systems

Livestock may provide important service and production functions in agroforestry systems. However, use of livestock in conifer/improved pasture agrosilvopastoral systems is currently limited by concerns about potential damage to trees by livestock. Effects of sheep grazing on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) trees in two patterns of sheep/pasture/conifer agroforest (cluster and grid plantations) were studied from 4 years after planting (1983) until the first precommercial thinning at age 10 years (1988). Trees averaged over 1 m in height when grazing began in summer 1983. Some browsing of tree lateral branches by sheep occurred regardless of grazing season in 1983–1985. However, the 2 to 10% of current year's lateral branch growth removed by grazing sheep was too low to impact tree growth. Sheep removed the terminal leaders from only 3 to 9% of trees each year during 1983–1985. Most browsing of terminals occurred in the summer when other forages had become mature and were relatively unpalatable to sheep. Less than 13% of agroforest trees were debarked by sheep each year during 1983–1987. By the end of grazing in 1987, less than 8% of agroforest trees had sustained a level of debarking likely to impact future growth (>50% of tree circumference debarked). Grazing had no discernible effect upon tree diameter or height in any year (P > 0.05). Total tree mortality attributable to sheep grazing during 1983–1987 was only 0.9%, including three trees girdled by sheep and two debarked trees which were subsequently attacked by insects. Overall, grazing had no detrimental impact on timber stand growth or mortality.Submitted as Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Paper No. 9628.     

冬季与早春低温对京桃开花与生长的影响

以长春市街路、庭院栽植的京桃为材料,观测2009～2010年冬春季节持续低温对其开花与生长的影响,结果表明:成年大树的开花与生长受到严重影响,所有植株均未开花,受害率达到100%;部分植株发生了不同程度的枯死枝和整株死亡现象,平均死亡率为11.1%.冬春季节的持续低温是导致受冻害的主要因素,可使花芽受冻致死和大树死亡;...     

河源市规模发展肉桂的技术探讨

河源的自然条件适宜肉桂的生长，尤以厚土层、质地疏松、湿润的缓坡山地中下部最适宜肉桂生长。初植密度以9000株／hm^2为宜。摘叶蒸桂油剪枝强度不能超过1／2，否则影响植株生长和剥桂皮。在河源若采用适宜的技术措施，可规模发展肉桂林基地。     

Perspectives on hedgerow intercropping

Hedgrow intercropping (alley cropping) is a relatively new technology involving growing agricultural crops between rows of planted tree species. Leucaena is the most widely studied tree species for the practice and research has indicated that it can yield over 200 kg ha^–1 year^–1 of nitrogen for application in the alleys where crops are planted. More herbage (and nitrogen) are obtained from narrow alleys, and crops utilise the nitrogen better if the prunings are incorporated into the soil before planting. Low pruning heights may prevent shading of the crops.Most of the agronomic aspects of the practice have been investigated in humid lowlands with high rainfall. There is a need to focus research on testing the practice under varied agro-ecological conditions, and using several suitable multipurpose trees species at a wide range of alley width and plant population. Investigations should include more than one crop in the alleys, and at different spatial arrangements. Management schedules, like time and frequency of pruning the trees and method of applying the prunings under different ecological conditions need more research attention. Studies on competition also need to be undertaken in order to suggest improvements to the practice.This paper attempts to put together and discuss some of the recent advances on these and other management aspects concerning hedgerow intercropping, and areas that need further research endeavour are exposed.