Implementation failure of the forest expansion policy in Flanders (Northern Belgium) and the policy learning potential

The current study is an illustrative example of intersectoral land conflicts in a highly populated region that resulted in the non-implementation of an already agreed-upon policy. More specifically, it evaluates the implementation of the forest expansion policy in Flanders (Northern Belgium) and assesses the potential to adjust current policy. The policy implementation analysis based on the variables checklist of the new top down models points out that the forest expansion program is not successful. This is mainly due to inconsistencies within the objectives and grant schemes used in agriculture and nature conservation policy and local resistance of the agricultural sector. The Advocacy Coalition Framework was used to examine the potential to adjust current policy. For the legislative changes, no adjustments were possible because two persistent coalitions, ‘continuity-oriented’ and ‘change-oriented’, with polarized core beliefs exist. The existence of these coalitions also emerged from a Detrended Correspondence Analysis of the binary table of all questioned topics. In contrast with the legislative changes, adjustment of forest grants would be possible. Hence, only less complicated policy adjustments seem possible for the Flemish forest expansion policy, and the outlook of this policy appears bleak.     

The impact of SFM-certification on forest product markets in Western Europe — an analysis using a forest sector simulation model

In the international discussion on labels for sustainably produced wood products based on the certification of sustainable forest management (SFM), little attention has been paid to what is probably the most crucial part of any market-based instrument: the potential impact on forest products markets. This paper analyses the potential impact of SFM-certification on forest products markets using a simulation model of the Western European forest sector. Two scenarios with assumptions regarding certification (chain-of-custody costs, timber supply reduction from certified forests) are projected for the period 1995–2015 and tested against the results of a base scenario (‘business as usual’). In general, the results show that rather modest changes are to be expected from SFM-certification in forest products markets. The market impact of a timber supply reduction from certified forest would be more distinct than the impacts of chain-of-custody costs. Industry gross profits would decrease more than production. Due to the large share of roundwood costs in total costs, the sawmill industry would be affected more by even small changes in raw-material prices than the panel and paper industry.     

Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution challenges

With the collapse of the communist regime the market changes were introduced in Ukraine, as in other Central and Eastern European Countries, including forestry sector. Reform was not as radical as in other sectors of economy, nor in the forestry sector as in some other countries of region. Ukraine is involved in international forest policy dialogue, particularly Intergovernmental and Pan-European processes of the forest sector development on the principles of sustainability, but implementation of international agreements needs to be sounder in practice.This paper discusses the current situation in forest sector and achievements and failures in economic, environmental, and social aspects of forest sector development. Policy and institutional mechanisms to develop the sustainable forest management (SFM) approaches are discussed. We analyze preconditions for institutional building (legislature, institutions, policy actors) looking at both the existing potential and the constraints in the realization of urgent tasks that arise in the economy in a period of transition. Specific attention is given to the national forest policy conception and forest sector development prospects.     

Sustainable management regimes for Europe's forests — a projection with EFISCEN until 2050

In Europe, forest policy discussions are moving towards a European Union-wide strategy. This will further intensify the relations between European countries in the field of forests and forest management. European-wide forest planning and decision-making require that policy makers have insight into the long-term development of European forests under alternative regimes. The European Forest Information Scenario Model (EFISCEN) was used to make projections of the development of the European forests under four scenarios: (1) business as usual; (2) EFISCEN European timber trend studies (ETTS); (3) maximum sustainable production; and (4) multifunctional management. The simulations were carried out for 30 countries individually, i.e. harmonized scenarios were run, but the special circumstances and demands that play a role in each country were taken into account. The simulations covered 139.2 million ha increasing to 143 million ha in 2050. The initial year varied per country, but was mostly in the region of 1990. The average age of European forests was 57 years in 1990 with a mean growing stock of 142 m³ ha⁻¹. The results showed that the future European total fellings may vary between a stable amount of 400 million m³ year⁻¹ in the ‘business as usual’ scenario to 647 million m³ year⁻¹ in the ‘maximum sustainable production’ scenario. The other two scenarios incorporated a 9% gradual increase in fellings over the first 30 years of the simulation period (i.e. 0.3% year⁻¹). The average growing stock will rise to approximately 250 m³ ha⁻¹ in 2050, with the exception being the ‘maximum sustainable production’ scenario, in which the growing remains at approximately 137 m³ ha⁻¹. The average net annual increment remains at approximately 5 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ throughout the simulation period, almost irrespective of the scenario. In the multifunctional scenario, special attention was paid to nature values by increasing the area of strict reserves from 4 million ha in 1990 to 12.3 million ha in 2050 (8.6% of the total forest area). The assumed increase in fellings of 0.3% year⁻¹ appeared possible in combination with this area of reserves. The simulations showed that growing stock development and increment development differed very much for each country separately per scenario. Therefore, the results show a strong need for maintaining the national diversity that constitutes European forestry within harmonized European-wide forest management strategies. In this article, we address what the consequences of each scenario are for wood production, biodiversity, and environmental functions of the forest. The results provide policy makers with a challenge on whether to intervene in the ongoing trend of build-up of growing stock and whether to choose for biodiversity, for increased use of domestically produced wood products, or a combination of these, but spatially separated.     

Analysis of environmental effects of prospective trade agreements: the forest products ATL as a case study in the science–policy interface

In the past few decades, the interaction between commodity trade and environmental conditions in both exporting and importing countries has received increasing attention. Recognition of accumulating and expanding environmental consequences of economic activity coincides with an increase in the absolute value and relative importance of trade in the global economy. Therefore, efforts to further reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade are prospectively attractive economic policies and, at the same time, potentially problematic from the perspective of environmental policy objectives. As is the case with many contemporary policy debates, the trade and environment debate is frequently characterized by rhetoric and advocacy of positions. Although examination of the consequences of specific trade policies is complicated by the nature of trade negotiations, opportunities exist to use science in formulating and evaluating policies. In the late 1990s, the forest sector was one of eight sectors targeted for accelerated tariff reduction. In response to concerns about the environmental consequences of the initiative, the US government conducted a first-of-its kind, quantitative study of the economic and environmental effects of the trade policy initiative on the forest sector. Although the multi-sector initiative was not implemented, successful completion of the analysis contributed to policy deliberations in a highly-charged atmosphere (during preparations for the 1999 World Trade Organization Ministerial meeting in Seattle). Demonstration of the ability to provide relevant, technically-credible results is among the factors providing support for the idea of environmental review of future US trade agreements. Therefore, the process and the results of the review of this trade initiative provide a useful case study in the science–policy interface.     

Forestry indemnity: a regional case study

The role of forests in the public and private spheres is the standard against which workers in the sector must measure their activities in outlining models for the use of forest resources. The actions of legislators and public administrations are aimed at identifying the intrinsic nature of forests in and of themselves (internal limits), from which flows the identification of their optimal use in terms of society and its economic interests (external limits). Additional measures have reinforced a new set of goals, which has shown a need for a new management approach with an emphasis on environmental uses, in turn calling for an indemnification to land owners for loss of income. This forest policy approach is frequently use in Italy, especially for forest with high environmental value as the forests within protected areas or in forests included in the Natura 2000 network. The workings of law 43/1974 for the Lazio region are reconcilable with this emerging model. This analysis of its 30 years of practice shows both its intrinsic potential for improving the environment, and the seriousness of its influence when it is mistakenly used to intervene in precarious ecosystems. The conclusions will highlight the circumstances and procedures for the proper use of a forestry indemnity as evidenced by the Lazio Region, pointing out the essential characteristics of a forestry policy that efficiently supports sustainable forest management. Conclusions highlighted the circumstances and procedures for the proper use of forestry indemnity, and, according to the Regione Lazio experience, certain essential characters that should typify the forest policy in order to support efficiently the sustainable forest management.     

Mosaic of reform: forest policy in post-1978 China

With the start of economic reforms in 1978, China's forest sector was caught up in a whirlwind of change. It began with the devolution of forest tenures in rural areas, but led to reform of state-owned forest enterprises via introduction of stumpage fees and liberalized forest product prices. From the early 1990s to 1998, while China increasingly embraced the market economy, the nation's natural forests continued to be depleted despite repeated emphasis on sustainable development. Then, in the wake of the 1998 floods in the Yangtze River basin, there was a shift in focus from timber production to environmental protection, with policy redirected toward the rehabilitation of damaged forest ecosystems, afforestation in desertified and degraded areas, and a ban on logging in natural forests. We provide an overview of the central themes of reform in China's forestry sector, identify the major factors that influenced policy formulation, and show that the outcomes of China's forest policy changes in the aggregate represent a paradigm shift.     

A concept for assessing sustainability impacts of forestry-wood chains

Due to the emerging importance of sustainable use of natural resources, and policies requiring actions towards sustainable development, there is a demand for methodologies and tools that are able to address these new challenges. In this paper, an approach to assess sustainability impacts of alternative production chains of the forest sector is presented. The approach, which is designed for both public and private decision-makers, describes the forest sector as a set of processes by which forest resources are used to (1) produce biomass which is routed through different value-adding production chains and converted to products and (2) provide other ecosystem services. It is suggested that each production process included in a production chain will be characterised by a set of indicators covering environmental, economic and social aspects of sustainable development. The approach is demonstrated by a numerical example, in which the indicator values are determined based on the volume of wood material flowing through the processes. Sustainability impacts of policy scenarios or technological changes result from changing from one production chain to another; the impacts accumulate along the production chains. Combined cost–benefit and multi-criteria analyses are proposed to evaluate overall impacts and to compare alternative chains.     

南方集体林区林业经济转型水平评价及驱动因素分析

立足当前生态文明建设和林业发展,文中从产业结构转型、劳动力就业结构转型和生态环境建设3方面构建我国南方集体林区林业经济转型指标体系,基于2000—2019年面板数据,运用熵值法测算林业经济转型水平,采用固定效应模型实证探究促进林业经济转型的驱动因素。结果显示:1)南方集体林区林业经济转型水平总体呈上升趋势,转型平均水平从2000年的0.51升至2019年的0.90,林业产业结构和劳动力就业结构趋向合理化转变;2)影响南方集体林区林业经济转型的主要为林业投资、技术水平、森林资源和林业系统工资水平的积极驱动作用,以及林权制度改革的政策冲击和城镇水平提高所产生的一定阻碍作用;3)不同水平下林业经济转型的主要驱动因素存在差异,转型水平较低阶段主要受技术水平、森林资源、人才资源、经济水平、城镇水平和工资水平影响,转型水平较高阶段主要受制度创新、林业投资、森林资源和工资水平影响。森林资源的丰富程度对各方面均会产生影响,森林资源较少地区林业经济转型受制度创新和技术水平影响显著,森林资源较多地区则受技术水平、森林资源、城镇水平和工资水平影响显著。结合南方集体林区林业经济转型发展的现状及实证分析结果,提出应进一步完善林业改革制度配套措施、加快发展第三产业、拓宽资金渠道、提高林业劳动力供给质量等有利于推动林区林业经济转型的对策建议。     

Owner-specific factors associated with conversion activity in secondary pine plantations

The conversion of secondary pine plantations into mixed broadleaf stands is considered to be an important mechanism in the process of sustainable forest management. The silvicultural process of forest conversion in ageing pine plantations is associated with active management aimed at inducing, steering or accelerating stand development. The aim of the present study was to investigate owner-specific factors – socio-demographic and forest-related characteristics, and motivation of ownership – influencing NIPF owners' active engagement in silvicultural conversion (henceforth referred to as ‘conversion activity’). The study relies on a survey of non-industrial private owners (n = 276) of pine plantations on poor sandy soils in Flanders (northern Belgium). The study revealed that NIPF owners, in general, make only minor contributions to forest conversion. Conversion activity (including thinning, making space for broadleaves, removing invasive species, clear-cut, planting) was rather low, but positively influenced by a number of factors. Private forest owners with clear motivations of ownership were more likely to engage in conversion activity. However, the nature of motivation was not very decisive as most of the items listed (with exception of land investment goals) had a positive influence. Furthermore, the conversion activity of owners called ‘economists’ did not significantly differ from those of ‘recreationists’, but ‘passive owners’ (those with unclear motivations of ownership) were less active. We thus suggest that it is the absence of clear motivations of ownership, rather than a particular ownership goal that would explain low conversion activity. Socio-demographics like age, gender and education, and also forest size had only marginal influence. But frequency of forest visits and proximity to the forest had a significant influence. As an overall conclusion from this study, we emphasize the importance for active forest management, and silvicultural conversion in particular, of forest owners being connected to their forest. In this sense, mental connectedness (motivation of ownership), as well as physical connectedness (living close to the forest and visiting it frequently) do matter.     

Institutional change in the forestry sector—The explanatory potential of New Institutional Economics

Due to a changed economic situation and due to a changed understanding about the role of the state in governing forest resources, there is currently a formal institutional change under way in various European countries. It will have far-reaching consequences for the mode of governance of forests. Institutions, as the rules of game, seem to be in need of change on all levels: international and national laws, collective choice arrangements, such as forest associations or contracts between economic actors. Within economics, New Institutional Economics (NIE) is the body of literature dealing with the rules of the game. This paper focuses on those theories within NIE that try to explain them.This paper focuses on those theories within NIE that try to explain institutional change and looks for their applicability to the forestry sector. The paper argues that, because of particular characteristics of the forestry sector, we should avoid applying a too simplified (neoclassical) version of the theory that relies mainly on the explanatory power of competition, transaction costs, efficiency and (bounded) rational actors. Instead, we should extend this theory and analyse carefully the ideologies – a term introduced by Douglas North into NIE – prevailing in the different actors' minds in order to understand the driving forces of institutional change. Ideology comprises on the one hand the mental models individuals use to explain the world and on the other hand the normative value judgements they use for knowing how the world “should be”.     

Future development of the Leningrad region forests under nature-oriented forest management

Russian forests are of high importance for the Russian economy, the European wood market, for nature conservation, and for carbon sequestration. However, the ongoing changes in forest management and administration in Russia led to uncertainty about forest ownership, wood harvesting levels, and long-term impacts of alternative management plans. Therefore, better insight in their current and future state is highly desirable. We present a study for the Leningrad region forests in which alternative management regimes for wood production and nature conservation values are balanced in varying ways. The total forest land area in the Leningrad region forest fund is 4.8 million ha. Coniferous species dominate and due to the natural succession occurring, the forests are divers in vertical structurally.

A timber assessment model was used to project the forest until 2040. Five forest management scenarios were run. Special attention was paid to a scenario that simulates recovery of the Russian forest sector in combination with the incorporation of a ‘set-aside for nature conservation’ policy. All scenarios showed that recovery of the forest sector in the Leningrad region is biologically feasible. A sustainable continuous annual production of 10.6 million m³ per year (2.8 m³ ha⁻¹ per year) by 2040 was found. The ‘Recovery with Nature Conservation’ scenario showed that recovery of the forest sector in combination with the establishment of set-aside areas is very well feasible. It was possible to set aside 28% of the forest area for nature conservation while still developing a forest sector to a production level higher than that achieved in the late eighties.

The timber assessment model applied was not specifically designed to incorporate nature-oriented forest management. We, therefore, discuss ways of improving the required methodology to analyse long-term effects of nature-oriented forest management in Europe.     

An object-oriented approach to assessing changes in tree cover in the Colorado Front Range 1938–1999

In the wake of numerous catastrophic wildfires, forest management policies have been implemented in recent years in the United States with the goals of reducing fire risk, including the National Fire Plan and the Healthy Forest Restoration Act. A key premise underlying these policies is that fire suppression has resulted in denser forests than were present historically that now have higher fire risk. To evaluate this premise for the northern Front Range, Colorado, we used object-oriented image analysis to compare change in tree cover delineated from historical and modern imagery. Historical photographs from 1938 and 1940 were scanned, orthorectified, and overlaid on Digital Orthoimagry Quarter Quadrangles (DOQQs) from 1999. Using an object-oriented image analysis technique, the photos were then finely segmented and classified into two classes: tree and non-tree. Trees are heterogeneous in appearance in black and white aerial photography, so we employed separate membership functions to identify four visually distinct types: ‘interior forest’, ‘isolated trees’, ‘dark forest’, and ‘edge forest’. Our classification strategy employed spatial relationships between objects in addition to spectral information, so that our classification is fairly robust to variations in illumination. Based on the classification of fine objects, we then calculated the percent tree cover within a larger set of objects for the two time periods. We estimate that average tree density across the study area increased minimally (4%) during the 60-year period, with considerable spatial variation across the landscape. The results of the analysis illustrate that, consistent with independent tree-ring evidence, the highest increase in tree density is in areas characterized by low initial density, south-facing slopes, low elevations, and ponderosa pine dominance. In contrast, the highest elevation areas dominated by mixed conifer and lodgepole pine forests revealed no significant change in tree cover. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between objects dominated by low, medium, and high departure from historical conditions, as classified in the Landfire Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) data product. The results of the study can help managers prioritize forest treatments aimed at restoring pre-suppression forest structure.     

Rising policy conflicts in Europe over bioenergy and forestry

Growing concerns over emissions of green-house gases causing climate change as well as energy security concerns have spurred the interest in bioenergy production pushed by EU targets to fulfil the goal of 20 per cent renewable energy in 2020, as well as the goal of 10 per cent renewable fuels in transport by 2020. Increased bioenergy production is also seen to have political and economic benefits for rural areas and farming regions in Europe and in the developing world. There are, however, conflicting views on the potential benefits of large scale bioenergy production, and recent debates have also drawn attention to a range of environmental and socio-economic issues that may arise in this respect. One of these challenges will be that of accommodating forest uses – including wood for energy, and resulting intensification of forest management – with biodiversity protection in order to meet EU policy goals. We note that the use of biomass and biofuels spans over several economic sector policy areas, which calls for assessing and integrating environmental concerns across forest, agriculture, energy and transport sectors.In this paper, we employ frame analysis to identify the arguments for promoting bioenergy and assess the potential policy conflicts in the relevant sectors, through the analytical lens of environmental policy integration. We conclude that while there is considerable leverage of environmental arguments in favour of bioenergy in the studied economic sectors, and potential synergies with other policy goals, environmental interest groups remain sceptical to just how bioenergy is currently being promoted. There is a highly polarised debate particularly relating to biofuel production. Based on our analysis, we discuss the potential for how those issues could be reconciled drawing on the frame conflict theory, distinguishing between policy disagreements and policy controversies.     

Shades of green: a social scientific view on bioeconomy in the forest sector

Politics increasingly introduces initiatives supporting a shift toward a bioeconomy aiming at a society relying strongly on renewable biological sources while achieving economic growth efficiently and sustainably. However, the agenda of bioeconomy comprises different “shades of green,” in the sense that different actors stress different aspects of the concept, when embracing it in communication. This conceptual paper aims to present policy and socioeconomic theoretical frameworks and research areas relevant for a more holistic understanding of the bioeconomy concept applied to the forest sector, and identify a core set of potential contributions from social sciences for enhancing the bioeconomy in the forest sector. The paper focuses on studies within policy analysis, economics, and business administration disciplines. Thus it presents diverse disciplinary perspectives on the forest sector in a bioeconomy. Furthermore, innovation and sustainability have been identified as issues relevant to be approached across these disciplines.     

Forest management after the economic transition—at the crossroads between German and Scandinavian traditions

Germany and Scandinavia represent two paradigmatic forest management traditions, based on management for volume and management for profit, respectively. This study examines the prevailing silvicultural regimes and resulting economic outcomes in Germany and Sweden as benchmarks, and then corresponding analyses are performed for post-transition EU countries, represented by Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The analyses reveal a regional gradient where Poland stands closest to the German tradition, Latvia goes through a “scandinavisation”, and Lithuania takes an intermediate position. Poland adheres to longer rotations and follows the principle of self-sufficiency, while economic efficiency has gained increased importance in Latvia. The observed gradient is likely to be sustained in the coming decades as the survey of key forest sector stakeholders reveals ideological patterns that correlate with the pace of reform of State forestry in Poland, Lithuania and Latvia.     

日本林业产业政策及对我国的启示

本文在分析日本林业产业结构及80年代主要产业政策的基础上,提出我国在制定产业政策时应借鉴的几点意见:确定统一发挥森林经济效益和防护效益的战略目标,扩大森林资源,加强林道建设,积极开展木材加工,增加林特产品产值;并建议把造纸工业划归林业部门领导,实行林业职工社会保险制度。     

Forestry in the Ukraine: the road ahead?

The economy of the Ukraine is in transition from a communist command-and-control to a capitalist system. In this paper, we describe the current state of its forest resources, the structure of its forestry and wood processing sectors, and the problems facing policy makers. While the forest sector should be, and still has the potential to become, an engine for economic growth, the combination of past exploitation and the slow pace of economic reform are major obstacles to implementing rational forest policies. Given the right economic incentives and appropriate forest policies, it may still be possible for the Ukraine to improve its future timber supply while enjoying environmental benefits from its forests. However, this requires economic and institutional reforms beyond the forest sector.     

Economic analysis in support of broad scale land management strategies

The US has a century of experience with the development of forest policies that have benefited from or been influenced by economic research activities in the forest sector. At the same time, increasing rigor in policy debates stimulated economics research. During the past four decades economic research has evolved to include increased understanding of consumer demands, producer behavior, landowner behavior and timber resource conditions. Bio-economic models have evolved that combine economic and resource models; these have been used in the US to provide the basis for forecasting future resource and market trends and to shape public perceptions. Economics research has also contributed frameworks for policy analysis using approaches like scenario planning to help decision-makers gauge uncertainty.