Frost Hardiness of Nothofagus procera and Nothofagus obliqua in Britain

The frost hardiness of four seedlots of Nothofagus proccra andsix seedlots of Nothofagus obliqua was measured experimentallyduring three winters. Shoots were taken from saplings growingat the Bush Estate in Scotland. All seedlots set buds in lateSeptember, hardened very slowly in the autumn, were damagedto some extent by temperatures below –14°C in mid-winter,and dehardened during frosty weather in February/March priorto budburst in mid to late April. The range of mid-winter temperaturesgiving 0%, 50% and 100% kill (LT₀, LT₅₀ and LT₁₀₀) were 8–14°C,13%20°C and 14–22°C, respectively. By contrast,British Fagus sylvatica hardened off rapidly in September, wasundamaged by frosts well below –20°C in mid-winter,and did not deharden until late April, prior to budburst atthe end of May. Nothofagus seedlots from Nuble in Chile (the most Equatorialsource) were the most frost susceptible: unfortunately, seedof this origin was supplied to many British nurseries between1976 and 1W9. Seedlots from Neuquen in Argentina, and from maturetrees of Malleco (Chile) origin growing in Britain, were themost host hardy. N. procera tended to be hardier than N. obliqua,and the trees became hardier with age. Past temperature records for Britain suggested that all theNothofagus seedlots had a high risk of suffering severe frostdamage at least once during a timkr rotation in all but mildcoastal regions. Spring and autumn frosts may be more damagingthan winter frosts. However, if it were possible to select individualswithin populations that were 3–6°C more frost hardythan the population means, such trees would be sufficientlyhardy to avoid frost damage in most lowland regions.     

Shoot dieback of lodgepole pine in Scotland caused by Ramichloridium pini

Research conducted on shoot dieback of lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta, during the early 1980's in west Scotland is summarised. The dieback symptoms and their stages of development are described. Ramichloridium pini de Hoog and Rahman was regularly isolated from bark and xylem tissue of dieased shoots. Artificial inoculations established that this fungus was the cause of the disease.     

Phytophthora pseudosyringae associated with the mortality of Nothofagus obliqua in a pure stand in central‐southern Chile

Mortality of Nothofagus trees in the southern‐central Chile region has been observed for over 30 years. A field survey conducted in 2013 detected partial defoliation and bleeding cankers on Nothofagus obliqua in a pure stand in the Nahuelbuta coastal ranges of the Biobío region. A Phytophthora sp. was isolated from stem cankers and soil samples around symptomatic N. obliqua trees: All isolates were identified as Phytophthora pseudosyringae. These isolates were pathogenic on 1‐year‐old N. obliqua and Nothofagus alpina, and on detached twigs of adult N. obliqua and Nothofagus dombeyi trees. This paper is the first to report association and pathogenicity of P. pseudosyringae with N. obliqua, N. alpina and N. dombeyi native to the Biobío region of Chile. The potential of P. pseudosyringae to cause damage in natural Nothofagus stands in Chile must be determined.     

The introduction of Hymenoscyphus fraxineus to Northern Ireland and the subsequent development of ash dieback

Ash dieback caused by Hymenoscyphus fraxineus was first recorded in Northern Ireland (NI) in November 2012. The disease was observed only on recently (<6 years) planted trees. An in-depth case study in 2015 of an ash plantation with severe symptoms indicated that many of the trees were infected at the time of planting. Apothecia were observed developing from pseudosclerotia beneath the epidermis of dead branches still attached to the tree, suggesting a possible mechanism whereby H. fraxineus could be disseminated without leaf or rachises infection. Apothecia also formed on roots, indicating that infections may also occur in the soil. Often young trees were killed by the formation of large basal lesions which did not arise from stem infections higher up. On first detecting the disease on the island of Ireland the Governments of NI and the Republic of Ireland published an “All-Ireland Chalara Control Strategy.” Part of that strategy was a ban on the importation of ash plants from regions where the disease was known to be present, to prevent the introduction of further inoculum, and the implementation of an ‘eradication and containment’ policy with the aim of preventing the establishment and spread of the disease. While these measures may have slowed disease establishment, they were ultimately unsuccessful and by 2018 ash dieback was widespread and established throughout the whole of NI in plantations and in the wider environment.     

Shoot growth and crown development: effect of crown position in three-dimensional simulations

Trees have been increasingly considered as modular organisms, with individual shoots forming autonomous units that respond semi-independently to their surrounding environment. However, there is evidence for fairly strict hormonal control of tree crown development. Studies on the hydraulic architecture of trees suggest a closer functional connection between shoots and crown development than is postulated by the theory of branch autonomy. We studied how shoot growth pattern influences growth and crown architecture in young Scots pine trees simulated by the LIGNUM model assuming that (a) the growth of a shoot mainly depends on its light climate and (b) the growth of a shoot is influenced by its position within the crown. We determined shoot position within the crown based on a recently developed vigor index. The vigor index compares the relative axis cross-sectional area from the base of the tree to each shoot and gives a value of 1 to the pathway of the greatest cross-sectional area. All other shoots attain values between 0 and 1 depending on their cross-sectional areas and the cross-sectional areas of the branches leading there from the main axis. The shoot light climate is characterized by annually intercepted photosynthetically active radiation. We compared the results from simulations (a) and (b) against an independent data set. The addition of a within-shoot position index (the vigor index) to our simulation (simulation b) resulted in a more realistic tree form than that obtained with simulation (a) alone. We discuss the functional significance of the results as well as the possibilities of using an index of shoot position in simulations of crown architecture.     

广西桉树焦枯病的流行规律研究

桉树焦枯病是广西近年来较严重的桉树病害之一。经常规组织分离鉴定确定广西桉树焦枯病病原菌主要有5种:Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum,Cy.floridanum,Cy.scoparium,Calonectria sulawesiensis,Ca.hongkongensis。其中Ca.sulawesiensis和Ca.hongkongensis是国内新发现的2种焦枯病菌。在广西,桉树焦枯病4月下旬开始发病,12月初结束,高峰期在7—8月。病害的发展与当地气候条件关系密切,尤其是降雨量、相对湿度和温度直接影响病害的发生程度。该病的发生程度与桉树的树龄、品种、所处地理位置、坡向、坡位有关。一年生以下桉林或桉苗、北坡和山脚洼地的树林发病较重;广西的两大主栽无性系中,广林9号抗病性较强,而DH 32-29相对较感病。     

Low temperature responses of Nothofagus dombeyi and Nothofagus nitida, two evergreen species from south central Chile

Nothofagus dombeyi (Mirb.) Blume and Nothofagus nitida (Phil.) Krasser are closely related evergreen trees native to south central Chile. Nothofagus dombeyi is a pioneer in habitats subject to high daytime irradiances and nighttime freezing temperatures and has a wider altitudinal and latitudinal distribution than N. nitida, which is restricted to more oceanic climates. We postulated that N. dombeyi has a greater cold-acclimation capacity, expressed as a greater capacity to maintain a functional photosynthetic apparatus at low temperatures, than N. nitida. Because cold-acclimation may be related to the accumulation of cryoprotective substances, we investigated relationships between ice nucleation temperature (IN), freezing temperature (FT), and the temperature causing injury to 50% of the leaf tissues (LT(50)) on the one hand, and concentrations of total soluble carbohydrates (TSC), starch and proline on the other hand. Observations were made throughout a seasonal cycle in adults and seedlings in the field and in seedlings in the laboratory under cold-acclimation inductive and non-inductive conditions. In adults, LT(50) values were lower in N. dombeyi than in N. nitida, suggesting that N. dombeyi is the more frost tolerant species. Adults of both species tolerated freezing in autumn and winter but not in spring and summer. In the fall and winter, seedlings of N. dombeyi had a much lower LT(50) than those of N. nitida. Nothofagus nitida seedlings, in autumn and winter, exhibited freezing avoidance mechanisms. Although elevated TSC and proline concentrations may contribute to freezing tolerance in adults of both species, an increase in proline concentration is unlikely to be the dominant frost tolerance response in adults because proline concentrations were higher in N. nitida than in N. dombeyi. In seedlings, however, there were large differences in proline accumulation between species that may account for the difference between them in freezing tolerance. Starch concentration in both species decreased during winter. Chlorophyll fluorescence indicated that maximal photochemical efficiency (F(v)/F(m)) remained at optimal values (~0.8) throughout the year. The effective photochemical efficiency of PSII (PhiPSII) and relative electron transport rates (ETR(r)) decreased in winter in both species. In seedlings, fluorescence parameters were more affected in winter in N. nitida than in N. dombeyi. We concluded that adults and seedlings of N. dombeyi are hardier than adults and seedlings of N. nitida, which is consistent with its wider latitudinal and altitudinal distribution.     

Temporal development of ash dieback symptoms and spatial distribution of collar rots in a provenance trial of Fraxinus excelsior

European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is threatened by Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus, the agent of ash dieback disease. Beside ordinary ash dieback symptoms, collar rots have been reported on declining ashes as an additional problem of increasing severity. Since 2009, ash dieback has been surveyed annually in a provenance trial on four different sites in southwest Germany (Metzler et al. in Ger J For Res 183:168–180, 2012). The trial was established in 2005. Data of tree growth, ash dieback symptoms and collar rot prevalence were collected by surveying the trial in summer 2012 and compared with previously published data of the trial. Evaluations revealed a continuous and considerable increase in dieback severity since 2009. The results suggest that the infection process has not come to a standstill yet. Up to 2012, 6 % of the trees remained symptomless, whereas mortality added up to 9 %. There were significant differences in ash dieback severity between the investigated provenances. Collar rot prevalence ranged from 19 to 59 % between study sites. Moreover, high spatial dependency of collar rot prevalence could be detected within sites. Collar rots were more abundant on trees of severe ash dieback intensity, but could also be detected on 15 % of otherwise healthy trees. Mycelium from collar rots could be identified by means of RFLP analyses and sequencing of the ITS region as most likely belonging to Armillaria gallica. The possible roles of Armillaria spp. and H. pseudoalbidus in collar rot formation are discussed.     

长沙地区3种优良观赏竹发笋及幼竹高生长规律

为给长沙地区观赏竹的引种培育和科学经营管理提供参考,研究了湖南省森林植物园中黄秆乌哺鸡竹、花秆早竹和花毛竹这3种竹的出笋、退笋及幼竹高生长规律。结果表明:黄秆乌哺鸡竹发笋期在4月初,花秆早竹和花毛竹在3月中下旬,历期均为20~25 d,明显分为初期、盛期和末期3个阶段;同一竹种不同发笋时期的发笋数间存在显著性差异(P0.05),其中黄秆乌哺鸡竹、花秆早竹和花毛竹的平均每株母株发笋数分别为1.09、1.85和1.16株;造成3种观赏竹退笋的原因有很多,其中在初期萌发笋退笋原因主要是人为机械损伤,盛期萌发笋退笋原因为机械损伤和营养缺乏等,而末期萌发笋的退笋原因主要是营养供应不足;3种观赏竹3个不同时期萌发笋幼竹高生长过程均呈"S"型生长曲线,符合"慢-快-慢"生长规律,相应的Logistic方程均较好地拟合了各个时期萌发笋幼竹的平均高生长过程;在幼竹高生长历期和株高方面,3种观赏竹初期和盛期萌发笋均优于末期,留笋养竹时选择初期和盛期萌发笋为宜;3种观赏竹幼竹昼夜生长均呈现一定节律,且夜间增长量均高于白天增长量。     

Changes during early development in photosynthetic light acclimation capacity explain the shade to sun transition in Nothofagus nitida

Nothofagus nitida (Phil.) Krasser, an emergent tree of the Chilean evergreen forest, regenerates under the canopy. Nonetheless, it is common to find older saplings in clear areas. We hypothesized that this transition from shade to sun during the early developmental stages is made possible by an ontogenetic increase in the light acclimation capacity of photosynthesis. To test our hypothesis, we studied photosynthetic performance and photoprotection in N. nitida saplings at different developmental stages corresponding with three different height classes (short: 16.2 cm; medium-height: 48.0 cm; and tall: 73.7 cm) grown under contrasting light conditions (photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 20, 300 or 600 micromol m(-2) s(-1)) until newly expanded leaves had developed. Light-saturated CO(2) assimilation rate and light compensation and saturation points increased with increasing PPF. Medium-height and tall saplings acclimated to high light had higher electron transport rates and higher proportions of open Photosystem II reaction centers than shorter plants acclimated to high light. Short saplings showed higher thermal dissipation and contents of xanthophylls than taller saplings. Only medium-height and tall saplings acclimated to high light recovered after photoinhibition. State transitions were higher in short plants growing in low light, and decreased with plant height and growth irradiance. Thus, during development, N. nitida changes the balance of light energy utilization and photoprotective mechanisms, supporting a phenotypic transition from shade to sun during its early ontogeny.     

Physiological responses to water stress and waterlogging in Nothofagus species

Gas exchange and water relations were investigated in Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides (Hook. f.) Poole (mountain beech) and Nothofagus menziesii (Hook. f.) Oerst (silver beech) seedlings in response to water stress and waterlogging. At soil matric potentials (Psi(soil)) above -0.005 MPa, N. solandri had significantly higher photosynthetic rates (A), and stomatal and residual conductances (g(sw) and g(rc)), and lower predawn xylem water potentials (Psi(predawn)) than N. menziesii. The relative tolerance of plants to water stress was defined in terms of critical soil matric potential (Psi(cri)) and lethal xylem water potential (Psi(lethal)). The estimated values of Psi(cri) and Psi(lethal) were -1.2 and -7 MPa, respectively, for N. solandri, and -0.7 and -4 MPa, respectively, for N. menziesii. Photosynthesis was sustained to a xylem water potential (Psi(xylem)) of -7 MPa in N. solandri compared with -4 MPa in N. menziesii. Following rewatering, both A and Psi(xylem) recovered quickly in N. solandri, whereas the two variables recovered more slowly in N. menziesii. During the development of water stress, nonstomatal inhibition significantly affected A in both N. solandri and N. menziesii. Nothofagus menziesii was more susceptible to inhibition of A by waterlogging than N. solandri. However, the tolerance of N. solandri to severe waterlogging was also limited as a result of a failure to form adventitious roots, suggesting a lack of adaptation to these conditions. The differences in tolerance to water stress and waterlogging between the two species are consistent with the distribution patterns of N. solandri and N. menziesii in New Zealand.     

Conifer seedling root fungi and root dieback in Finnish nurseries

Fungi were isolated from the roots and growth substrate of bare‐rooted and containerized Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies nursery seedlings displaying a root dieback. Isolations were also made from visually healthy seedlings. The potential pathogenicity of all isolated species was determined in laboratory trials.

Cylindrocarpon spp., Fusarium spp. and Trichoderma viride were frequently isolated. The isolation frequency of a uninucleate Rhizoctonia‐like fungus, Pythium spp. and Phytophthora imdulatum from diseased containerized seedlings and their pathogenicity in tests suggest that these fungi are likely involved in the root dieback disease in containers. The pathogenic Rhizoctonia‐like fungus in addition to Pythium spp. was also isolated from bare‐rooted seedlings. In greenhouse tests Pythium spp. were more pathogenic to 4‐week‐old Scots pine seedlings grown before transplantation in unsterile substrate than to those seedlings grown axenically in agar. External factors are considered to have some role in the expression of disease.     

辽东楤木回枯病病原分离及鉴定

回枯病是辽东楤木的主要病害,其病原菌为蠕孢镰刀菌(Fusarium larvarum)。     

毛竹笋用林挖掘鞭笋对春笋的影响

自2001年开始开展毛竹笋用林生产鞭笋试验,结果表明:通过保持良好的立竹结构、增施肥料、清除老弱鞭等措施,挖掘鞭笋不会对春笋产量和出笋时间造成影响,影响出笋时间的主要因子是出笋前1个月平均气温和降雨量。合理挖掘鞭笋可使毛竹笋用林的经济效益显著提高。     

毛竹鞭笋与冬笋、春笋的内在特征分析

为开展鞭笋高产技术研究,提高竹林总产值,对毛竹鞭笋与冬笋、春笋的笋芽萌发数量、竹笋个体质量和竹笋生长方向等因子进行对比分析。结果表明:与冬笋和春笋相比,鞭笋笋芽萌发数量少、笋个体质量小,竹鞭平均直径比立竹平均胸径小4倍,且被挖出利用的鞭笋只占鞭笋总量的40.3%。分析表明,单位面积鞭笋产量低于冬笋和春笋的原因是由毛竹自身的内在特性所致。为提高鞭笋产量,应及时采挖鞭笋,促使岔鞭多发,并适时施肥,促进支鞭萌发生长。     

Effect of shading and fertilisation on the development of container-grown Nothofagus glauca seedlings,a threatened species from central Chile

Nothofagus glauca is an endemic tree of the Mediterranean zone of Chile and is a threatened species. Currently, available information for the propagation and nursery cultivation of this species is conspicuously lacking. This study examined the effect of four levels of shade (18%, 35%, 65% and 80% with Raschel® plastic net) and four rates of slow-release fertiliser (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 g l^?1 of Basacote® Plus 9M) on container-grown seedlings after one growing season. Growth was significantly affected by shade and fertilisation. Seedlings grown under 18% or 35% shade were larger in diameter and had more roots than those grown under 80% shade and fertilisation with 2.5–5 g l^?1 of media were smaller than those fertilised with 7.5–10 g l^?1.     

杜鹃花枯梢病病原菌的研究

从有杜鹃花枯梢病的病株上分离到Ｐｈｙｔｏｐｈｔｈｏｒａｃａｃｔｏｒｕｍ,在温室内,病菌的游动孢子悬浮液喷布植株的幼嫩组织均能致枯梢病。嫩梢上的病斑在２～３天内发展成浅褐色至暗褐色的病斑。游动孢子不会侵染无伤植株上的老组织,但侵入到植株体内的菌丝能穿过幼嫩组织而在老组织中定殖。老叶片上的楔形斑就是因病茎中的病菌穿过叶柄而产生的。病原菌在感病的寄主组织内部能产生卵孢子。病组织保湿１２小时后,在被感染的组织内形成孢子囊。     

辽东木葱木回枯病病原分离及鉴定

回枯病是辽东木葱木的主要病害,其病原菌为蠕孢镰刀菌(Fusarium larvarum).     

Shoot development,chlorophyll, gas exchange and carbohydrates in lychee seedlings (Litchi chinensis)

Shoot growth, chlorophyll concentrations, gas exchange and starch concentrations were studied in lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) seedlings of cultivar "Wai Chee" grown in a heated greenhouse at Nambour in subtropical Australia (27 degrees S). We also examined the effects of shoot defoliation and root pruning on leaf expansion. Shoot growth showed a rhythmic cycle under constant greenhouse conditions, with a mean duration of flushing of 20 days and an interval of 10 days over three cycles. Shoots and leaves expanded in a sigmoidal pattern to about 80 mm and 500 cm(2), respectively, for each flush. Starch concentrations of the lower stem and roots decreased as the young red leaves expanded, and increased as the fully expanded leaves turned dark green. Chlorophyll concentrations and net CO(2) assimilation rate were highest in the fully expanded dark green leaves. Removing 50% of the area of each fully expanded leaf had little effect on the expansion of younger leaves, but total biomass of defoliated plants was only 60% of that of controls. In contrast, removing half the roots just before bud swelling reduced final leaf area by 80%. We conclude that the young shoot has relatively low rates of photoassimilation until the leaves are fully expanded and dark green, and depends on assimilates from elsewhere in the plant. During leaf expansion, translocation of assimilates to the shoot occurred at the expense of the roots.     

Wood-rotting fungi on Nothofagus pumilio in Patagonia,Argentina

The presence of basidiomes of wood-decay fungi on living lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) was investigated in seven forest stands in Patagonia (Argentinia). The following species accounted for 85% of the rots: Postia pelliculosa, Phellinus andinopatagonicus, Piptoporus portentosus, Aurantioporus albidus, and Serpula himantoides. Ph. andinopatagonicus and A. albidus cause characteristic white rots, while the other tree species cause unspecific, cubical brown rots. S. himantoides was associated with cords among the decayed wood fragments. One stand was investigated in detail. The volume of decayed timber on this plot was 75%. Postia pelliculosa and Ph. andinopatagonicus probably infected the trees through the roots as well as through the canopy, and accounted for 70% of the wood-rots. Piptoporus portentosus probably infected only through the canopy, while A. albidus and S. himantoides did so through the roots. Only 12% of the trees showed no decay. From trees with decay, 36% were attacked by one fungal species, 35% by two species.