What does it take to institute REDD +? An analysis of the Kilosa REDD + pilot,Tanzania

Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD +) has been seen as an important element in future climate policies. This paper analyzes the establishment of a REDD + pilot project in Kilosa district, Tanzania. It documents changes in organizations and institutions for land management undertaken to enable villagers to produce and sell stored carbon. Moreover, it evaluates the legitimacy both of the process of introducing REDD + and the outcomes in the form of new governance structures. We find that establishing tradable carbon is demanding. In fact, no carbon has yet been sold. We observe that while the Kilosa REDD + pilot managed to engage local communities to a rather unusual extent, the case also showed that introducing REDD + ‘on the ground’ faces several challenges regarding legitimacy.     

A Collaborative Forest Management user group's perceptions and expectations on REDD + in Nepal

Although local communities and indigenous peoples are the main actors for REDD + practices, their needs and perceptions have received little attention in the debates on REDD +, despite much rhetoric to the contrary. In this study, a Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) site was studied using a questionnaire survey administered to a CFM user group in order to understand CFM users' perceptions and knowledge of their forest and REDD + and evaluate their expectations for potential REDD + benefits. Specifically, the study investigated the following questions: Do CFM users know about REDD +? Are there any differences in the perceptions and expectations among nearby and distant users?The data obtained from the semi-structured questionnaire, interviews and household survey indicate that people are sensitive to changes in climate and the forest around them but are unaware of climate change mechanisms and the links between climate change and deforestation. Compared to distant users, nearby users felt more strongly that the forest is essential to their lives and were more interested in participation in REDD + practices. As the distant users are also significant actors in management practices, there is a need to raise distant users' interests in REDD +. Both nearby and distant users had high expectations of the potential benefits of REDD +. These findings are significant for policymakers as they provide insights into the feasibility of REDD + within the context of the present form of CFM in Nepal. The Government and related stakeholders should communicate with the local communities regarding the opportunities and risks of REDD + projects, and meaningfully involve the local communities in the design and implementation process if they are to receive local support. It is important to develop a system of equitable decision-making and benefit-sharing that reflects local needs, and is incorporated into any REDD + action plans applied to the Terai forests.     

Prospects and challenges of tenure and forest governance reform in the context of REDD + initiatives in Nepal

This paper argues that the Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +) initiatives in Nepal have not adequately understood and considered institutional and political issues around forest tenure and governance challenges. The paper is developed based on reviews of polices, assessments of project activities, interviews with key informants, and observation of ongoing REDD + related public discussions. We found that the REDD + initiatives so far appear to have prioritized technical issues such as carbon assessment, reference scenario, and measurement, reporting and verification of emissions. However, a major policy challenge in Nepal is the substantial deforestation and degradation going on, which leads to substantial challenges of leakage and threatens Nepal's National REDD + policy ambition. The key drivers of deforestation and degradation in Nepal are still poorly identified, analyzed and understood. Inadequate focus of Nepal's present REDD + readiness on the core issues of contested forest tenure and frail governance entails that an unrealistic policy and institutional measures would be developed in addressing these issues of deforestation and degradation. Consequently, it would seriously undermine the prospect of achieving emission reduction — the very goal of REDD +. It is suggested that a robust analysis, collective understanding and broadly agreed policy measures for curbing deforestation must be at the core of REDD + readiness process.     

Historical development of institutional arrangements for forest monitoring and REDD + MRV in Peru: Discursive-institutionalist perspectives

The goal of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the roles of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD +) under UNFCCC has triggered a new discussion on forest resource assessments in these countries. The international process on measurement, reporting and verification of REDD + outcomes (REDD + MRV) expands the scope of forest inventories to include quantification of forest carbon stocks and their changes for results-based REDD + payments. UNFCCC decisions also specify methods to be used, and actors to be involved. Although forest management in developing countries has clearly been influenced by international processes in the past, exactly how and to what extent REDD + MRV has affected institutional arrangements for forest assessments in developing countries remains unknown. Using as a theoretical framework Discursive-Institutionalism, a concept derived from political science, this paper examines (1) the historical evolution of institutional arrangements for forest inventories in Peru; and (2) how and to what extent their development has been shaped by international processes on forests, and, more recently, specifically by REDD + MRV. The findings show that the international REDD + MRV discussion has expanded the objectives of forest assessments in Peru, inspired the mobilization of new actors and resources, and spawned the development of new protocols for forest assessments. However, the ‘depth’ of these changes is not yet extensive, since the new rules for forest inventories have not yet been formally adopted, and the institutes envisaged to implement forest inventories, including measurement of carbon stocks and their changes, have not been established.     

Indonesia's Forest Management Units: Effective intermediaries in REDD + implementation?

Previous literature encouraged a hybrid institutional approach for REDD + implementation, where clear government policies help reconcile the rules, regulations and interests of external institutions with those of the communities involved. However, it is unclear how such an approach can be designed in the scale necessary to match local, national and international interests in protecting forests. For this reason, the functions of intermediaries deserve explicit recognition by key actors in shaping REDD + policy nationally and internationally. Indonesia is promoting the more localized Forest Management Unit (Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan or KPH) as a key element of forest governance reform for embracing REDD + and related initiatives. Using a case study from eastern Indonesia, we analyzed local factors driving deforestation and forest degradation. We then reviewed the work of the local KPH to examine the necessary roles of a potential REDD + intermediary. We argue that progress made by the local KPH in improving forest governance, including partnerships with local communities, is made possible by the KPH fulfilling the role of policy intermediary while taking on transformative roles reshaping internal and external relations. However, for the KPHs to fulfill their mandate as effective REDD + intermediaries, more concerted efforts from the central and provincial governments, as well as from international donors, are still needed. These include greater consistency in government policies and regulations, improved policy communications, and the commitment to strengthening the capacity of individual KPHs.     

The role of government in operationalising markets for REDD + in Indonesia

The global climate initiative Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +) initially included carbon markets as one potential policy mechanism to finance a range of forestry projects in developing countries. Indonesia was an early leader on REDD +, and set up the regulatory frameworks and monitoring systems to support demonstration projects that could trade credits in voluntary carbon markets. This article applies a neoliberal governmentality framework to evaluate the development of REDD + market institutions in Indonesia during the Readiness period between 2008 and 2013. It critiques the role of the state in this process, and how the authority of public agencies shapes the actions of private subjects. The case of Indonesia indicates a pivotal role for government agencies at multiple levels in integrating the operation of REDD + market activities within a supportive regime of forest and land management. Critical to this process was legislation to trade in forest carbon and obtain project licenses, devolved land-use planning and forest management that could support commercial activities, and robust MRV surveillance systems to oversee on-ground activities. Despite these efforts, projects were often subject to an uncertain and highly contested forest management regime, undermining attempts to demonstrate the viability of operationalising market mechanisms at the local scale.     

Insights from the ground level? A content analysis review of multi-national REDD+ studies since 2010

The REDD program (“Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation”) was launched in 2007. Two years later it was modified into REDD +. Since then, numerous sub-national initiatives have implemented REDD + or REDD +-like mechanisms. Now, shortly before the COP (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties) in Paris 2015 it is timely and necessary to analyze insights and to draw upon lessons learned. This study reviews multi-national REDD+ studies by applying qualitative content analysis using the UNFCCC Warsaw Framework for categorization.Experiences with the implementation of core REDD+ topics like institutional responsibility and results-based financing are mostly not encouraging. Monitoring systems require further development, and guidance for jurisdictional approaches is lacking. Experiences with reference levels, permanence and leakage have hardly been reported. More general topics like stakeholder participation, tenure clarification and biodiversity co-benefits are in turn more advanced. But these are not necessarily effects of REDD+ components in the projects. The projects obviously offer a platform to advance classical development issues.We conclude that financial signals from the upcoming COP in Paris are essential to encourage further development and implementation. This supports conclusions in accordance with the UNFCCC session in Bonn 2015 stating that methodologies are now complete and implementation must begin. Additional conclusions are drawn for specific topics of the Warsaw Framework. Authors claim that REDD+ should stimulate and support transformational change.     

Synergies among social safeguards in FLEGT and REDD + in Cameroon

Two key international policy processes have been developed to combat illegal logging and promote the contribution of forests to climate change mitigation in developing countries: the European Union's Action Plan on Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) and its Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs), and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change policy on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +). The implementation of these policies raises concerns about unintended adverse effects on the environment and local peoples' livelihoods. To prevent such effects, both processes involve developing country-level safeguards, so that they ‘do no harm’. This paper presents (i) a comparison of the social safeguards of the FLEGT-VPA and REDD + processes and an explanation of their commonalities and differences, and (ii) an exploration of the potential synergies and the challenges to realizing them. The three main research methods used in the study were semi-structured interviews, content analysis of policy documents, and focus group discussions with local communities and indigenous peoples in south and east Cameroon. Our analysis shows that whereas FLEGT-VPA includes legality-based safeguards with legally binding monitoring and reporting obligations, REDD + adopts a right-based approach to safeguards. Potential synergies between the two approaches were identified. The synergies lie in the participatory nature of the process of designing benefit sharing mechanisms, strengthening forest and land tenure, and defining the criteria and indicators in FLEGT-VPA and REDD + safeguards. However, realizing the synergies is challenging, given the existing political economy of Cameroon.     

Five years of REDD+ governance: The use of market mechanisms as a response to anthropogenic climate change

Forest ecosystems worldwide are increasingly subjected to human intervention, leading commentators to argue that forests should be viewed as anthropogenic ecosystems. REDD+ is an emerging inter-governmental policy instrument aimed at both reducing deforestation and forest degradation and combatting climate change, whereby developed countries pay developing countries to reduce their forest-based emissions. The paper details a five-year research project to evaluate REDD+ quality of governance and develop governance standards for the mechanism. Quality of governance was evaluated in five key international institutional elements: the REDD + related negotiations in the global climate talks; the support and funding agencies UN-REDD, Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), Forest Investment Programme (FIP) and the REDD + Partnership. This research was complemented by national level governance assessments and related standards setting initiatives in Nepal and Papua New Guinea. The researchers conclude that REDD+ confronts a number of challenges, notably around resources for capacity building, and benefit sharing. In addition, the lack of provisions for changing behaviour and solving the problem of forest-based emissions in the current safeguards render them inadequate to the task of delivering quality of governance. In the absence of consistent governance standards, REDD + will only partially be successful in combatting climate change in the Anthropocene.     

Competing discourses on REDD +: Global debates versus the first Indian REDD + project

This article analyzes three of the most contentious scholarly and political debates regarding REDD +, focusing on 1) what REDD + should achieve; 2) who should monitor REDD + outcomes; and 3) how REDD + should be financed. In analyzing these, the article conceptualizes three sets of storylines and assesses which of the identified storylines resonate in the first Indian REDD + project, focusing on both stakeholders' views and project design. The three identified questions do not give rise to contentious debates among stakeholders of the REDD + project. Contrasting views on REDD + found in scholarly and political debates – such as carbon versus non-carbon objectives, authority of technical experts versus local communities, and market versus fund-based approaches – are not prevalent among project stakeholders, who believe that different approaches to REDD + can be combined and can even reinforce each other. Project stakeholders prefer non-carbon benefits as the project's main objective to be monitored jointly by experts and local communities, and favor a mix of fund- and market-based approaches. This is also reflected in the project design. The conclusion reflects on the insights that the multi-level discourse analysis in this article generated, including for REDD + in general.     

Confusion vs. clarity: Property rights and forest use in Uganda

Projects and policies targeted at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD +) frequently emphasize the articulation of property rights that are new, formalized or revised. A major question for successful REDD + implementation, and forest sector reform more broadly, is how changes in formal rights are understood and internalized by resource users. This paper explores the determinants of knowledge of formal rights, and whether accurate knowledge of rights influences forest clearing and forest product harvesting behavior in Uganda. We find limited awareness of rules surrounding clearing forest, and mixed levels of awareness regarding rights to harvest specific forest products. Harvesting behavior is variably correlated with awareness of rights depending on the product and capacity of district forest officials.     

National REDD + reference levels deduced from the global deforestation curve

This article proposes an approach to one of the most prominent problems for the establishment of a REDD + regime — namely reference level determination. We have developed a standardised approach for the consideration of national circumstances in REDD + reference levels, which applies the global curve of forest cover development as the benchmark for accounting of avoided deforestation. The approach draws on the identification and empirical quantification of a global deforestation curve which was created by applying the forest transition concept (Köthke et al., 2013). By the underlying regression model the most relevant national circumstances were identified as the average of 140 countries. These national circumstances represent the development stages of the individual countries, from which their future forest cover development in the global average can be determined.By applying national data for estimating the corresponding average development the article identifies national reference levels for 86 REDD + target countries which are still in their deforestation phase. It is estimated by how much actual deforestation in each country deviates from the mean deforestation curve; the period considered is 2005–2010. This is the first time a uniform global deforestation pattern was used to determine the consideration of national circumstances in REDD + reference levels. The quantitative results provided here may be an important basis for further policy discussions about reference level determination.     

The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area of Ghana: Ecosystem service values and on-site REDD + opportunity cost

The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area is one of the most important protected areas (PA) in West Africa. This study aimed at estimating the economic values of selected ecosystem services of the PA and the direct on-site REDD + opportunity costs to communities. We found that the PA stocks 32.8 million m³ (627 m³/ha) of standing trees with a stumpage value of about $ 19.1 million (364 $/ha), 64.3 million tCO₂e (1230 tCO₂e/ha) of carbon worth of $379.5 million ($7257/ha), and 6380 tons of nutrients worth of 0.64 million USD. The direct on-site REDD + opportunity cost for conserving the PA until 2042 was about 6.7–24.1 $/tCO₂e (0.22–0.80 $/tCO2e per year) in net present value. From our field observation of the PA, we did not see a buffer zone that separates the PA from the surrounding land uses. Establishing a buffer zone is very important for the sustainability of the PA. Such an effort, however, should take in to account the opportunity costs to the rural communities associated with possible displacement. Thus, the results of the study could be used as important input for designing policies that will reinforce the sustainability of the Ankasa PA and other conservation sites in Ghana.     

Optimal rotation age for carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation in Vietnam

Biodiversity loss is a major problem in terms of loss of genetic and ecosystem services and more specifically via impacts on the livelihoods, food security and health of the poor. This study modeled forest management strategies that balance economic gains and biodiversity conservation benefits in planted tropical forests. A forest-level model was developed that maximized the net present value (NPV) from selling timber and carbon sequestration while maintaining a given level of biodiversity (as per the population density of birds). The model was applied to Eucalyptus urophylla planted forests in Yen Bai Province, Vietnam. It was found that the inclusion of biodiversity conservation in the model induces a longer optimal rotation age compared to the period that maximizes the joint value from timber and carbon sequestration (from 8 to 10.9 years). The average NPV when considering timber values plus carbon sequestration was 13 million Vietnamese Dong (VND) ha^− 1 (765 USD ha^− 1), and timber, carbon sequestration and biodiversity values were 11 million VND (676 USD) ha^− 1. Given this differential, governments in such tropical countries may need to consider additional incentives to forest owners if they are to encourage maximizing biodiversity and its associated benefits. The results also have some implications for implementing the climate control measure of “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation-plus (REDD +)” in developing countries, i.e., payment for carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits in planted forests.     

Regeneration of Norway spruce in canopy gaps in Sphagnum-Myrtillus old-growth forests

Gap-associated spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) regeneration in Sphagnum-Myrtillus stands of south taiga forests (Central Forest Biosphere reserve, Tver region, Russia) was studied to evaluate the role of different disturbances in spruce dynamics. Sampled gaps (n=70) ranged from 40 m² to 1.7 ha in size, and from 1 to 70 years since disturbance moment. Formation of gaps lead to increase in the number of stems per ha in all gap size classes (small: 40–200 m², medium: 200–3000 m², and large: >3000 m² gaps). Spruce was the most important species in gap refilling, although its role was not the same in different gap classes. The highest values of relative abundance (compared to other species) were recorded in small gaps, and much lower values – in middle and large gaps. However, as refilling of gaps proceeded, spruce showed rather active regeneration in middle and large gaps and partly regained its abundance in middle-age disturbances. In general, all types of gaps studied supported spruce regeneration into the forest canopy. Almost perfect correlation between predicted outcome of spruce dynamics in gaps and its current role in the canopy of Sphagnum-Myrtillus stands suggests a good adaptation of this species to the current disturbance regime and a steady state of the these forests.     

Governing the design of national REDD +: An analysis of the power of agency

This paper investigates how three aspects of governance systems, namely the policy context, the influence of key agents and their discursive practices, are affecting national-level processes of policy design aimed at REDD +, reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries. We conducted analysis in six REDD + countries (Brazil, Cameroon, Indonesia, Nepal, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam). The paper combines three methods: policy analysis, media-based discourse analysis and policy network analysis. The paper shows that policies both within and outside the forestry sector that support deforestation and forest degradation create path dependencies and entrenched interests that hamper policy change. In addition, most dominant policy coalitions do not challenge business-as-usual trajectories, reinforcing existing policy and political structures. No minority policy coalitions are directly tackling the root causes of deforestation and forest degradation, that is, the politico-economic conditions driving them. Instead they focus on environmental justice issues, such as calls for increased participation of indigenous people in decision-making. Only in two of the six countries are these transformational change coalitions vocal enough to be heard, yet to exercise their agency effectively and to support more substantial reforms, these coalitions would need the participation of more influential policy actors, particularly state agencies that have the authority to make binding decisions about policy. Furthermore, discourses supporting transformational change would need to be reflected in institutional practices and policy decisions.     

Regeneration dynamics of Sitka spruce in artificially created forest gaps

This study examined the variation in the development of naturally regenerated and planted seedlings of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) within gaps cut in a 32-year-old stand of the same species. The circular gaps were 20 m in diameter and designed to allow sunlight into only half of the gap floor at midsummer given the latitude of 56°45′N. Eight plots (8 m × 3 m) were laid out along a north–south transect through each gap (four within the gap and two each under the closed canopy north and south of the gap). Each plot was sub-divided and seedlings were planted into one part and the other part was left to naturally regenerate. In subsequent seasons, plots were further subdivided into ‘weed free’ and ‘vegetation left untouched’. Results showed that while the two central plots within the gaps had the highest value of canopy openness, the highest accumulated temperature and lowest soil moisture were recorded in plots that received direct sunlight. However, level of germination was significantly higher in the shaded area of the gap than in the part that received direct sunshine suggesting that higher moisture levels in shaded areas are important to successful germination. Minimal germination was recorded in the plots beneath the canopy. Seedling survival was significantly influenced by the influx of competing vegetation, but only in the part of the gaps that received direct sunlight. The success of Sitka spruce regeneration within gaps appears to depend on sufficient moisture and light to support regeneration and early growth, but not too much light to encourage the development of competing vegetation. The permanently shaded areas of the gaps appeared to offer ground conditions with sufficient moisture and light to ensure successful germination and early growth of seedlings, but without excessive competition from other vegetation.     

Demography and life history of Geonoma orbignyana: An understory palm used as foliage in Colombia

Geonoma orbignyana is a common understory palm, whose leaves are used as foliage in Colombia. This palm has been used for more than 30 years; but there is no information about its life history or conservation status. Our objective was to characterize the life history of this palm and population dynamics of a natural population as a first step to assess the effect of leaf harvesting. More than 1600 palms were monitored from June 1999 to March 2000; we measured growth, mortality, and reproductive success. Population dynamics were evaluated using a Lefkovitch matrix model, and elasticity analysis. Results indicate that G. orbignyana grows at a rate of 1.98 ± 0.047 leaves/year, the palm has a long lifespan, and growth and reproduction are related to light conditions in the forest. The density of this palm is high (108–311 palms/100 m²), which is explained in part by its capacity to continue growing after damage, and to respond to the frequent gap formation in the forest. The population is growing (λ = 1.074, CI = [1.046–1.099]). Survival transitions account for 77% of population growth, a value that is higher compared to other understory plants. Because of the high density, the recovery capacity of these palms, and the correlations found between individual and population performances with forest dynamics, we hypothesize that G. orbignyana behaves as an opportunistic species taking advantage of forest gaps. This palm is a promising non-timber forest product (NTFP) with a high profile for further exploitation, although we recommend that harvesting regimens should consider time of recovery and forest dynamics. Without these considerations mortality could increase in all classes, which will compromise population persistence. Further studies should accurately estimate the recovery time after defoliation as well as to characterize forest dynamics identifying its most important features for population growth.     

Conditions of forest transition in Asian countries

This study identifies the important factors that contribute to or inhibit forest transitions in nine Asian countries: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Philippines, and Vietnam. A qualitative comparative analysis method was used to determine which conditions or combinations of conditions led to or prevented a forest transition. Under the condition of public ownership with no private forest tenure or ownership of forest land, there was no instance of forest transition among the nine countries studied. Under the condition of non-liberal timber trade policies, there was no instance of forest transition in the countries studied. The results of this analysis suggest that for a forest transition to occur, the country should liberalize timber import and provide forest tenure to the private sector. Based on these results, we argue that in order for a forest transition to take place or for REDD + to be effective, the state should allow for private sector to participate in forest management and create market conditions that meet the demand for timber via trade policy alignment.     

Tree and forest encroachment into fescue grasslands on the Cypress Hills plateau,southeast Alberta,Canada

Tree encroachment into rough fescue (Festuca campestris) grassland has been identified as an ecological concern on the Cypress Hills plateau in southeastern Alberta, Canada. A combination of field sampling (109 transects), a dendrochronological assessment (1361 trees), and a time series analysis of remotely sensed images from five different time periods (1950–2002) were used to determine the extent and rate of tree encroachment and forest development. Tree cover increased by 768 ha (～51%) between 1950 and 2007, representing 10% of the study area, from 1502 ha of pre-1950 forest. Post-1950 tree invasion also created an ingress zone of 750 ha (～10% of study area) based on field transects. Forest cover increased at a consistent rate of 14.3 ha/year. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) was the most common tree species associated with encroachment. Invasion based on the number of established trees occurred at an exponential rate of 3.1%/year after 1890, with density increased by filling spaces adjacent to and between trees within the grassland vegetation. The rate of tree establishment increased to 4.4%/year after 1980, suggesting a change occurred in environmental conditions. Annual atmospheric temperatures increased 0.55 °C from 1929 to 2005 (P < 0.001), with winter (December–February) and spring (March–May) temperatures accounting for most of the increase (P < 0.001), whereas summer (June–August) temperatures slightly decreased (P < 0.050, 0.34 °C) and precipitation increased (P < 0.005, 30 mm). Cattle and elk (Cervus elaphus) grazing was not considered a primary factor for explaining tree encroachment. Based on multidimensional scaling, lodgepole pine establishment was associated with warmer spring temperatures and greater fall (October–November) precipitation. A landscape devoid of wildfires, combined with greater moisture availability, and a longer frost-free season is likely conducive to the sustained establishment of coniferous trees and forest development within the Cypress Hills fescue grassland ecosystem. Long-term conservation of the fescue grasslands could be possible by reintroducing fire.