Foliar exchange of mercury vapor: Evidence for a compensation point

Historical studies for crop and weed species documented elemental Hg vapor (Hg°) deposition to foliage, but they used Hg° concentrations that were orders of magnitude higher than levels now known to occur under background conditions, possibly creating artificially high gradients between the atmosphere and landscape surfaces. Measurements of Hg° exchange with white oak (Quercus alba L.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies L.), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) foliage were conducted in an open gas exchange system that allows for simultaneous measurements of CO₂, H₂O and Hg° exchange under controlled environmental conditions. When Hg° concentrations were held at 0.5 to 1.5 ng m^?3, red maple (Acer rubrum L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies L.), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and white oak (Quercus alba L.) foliage exhibited mean Hg° emissions of 5.5, 1.7, 2.7, and 5.3 ng m^?2 h^?1, respectively. At Hg° concentrations between 9 and 20 ng m^?3 little net exchange of Hg° was observed. However at concentrations between 50 and 70 ng m^?3 the Hg° was deposited to foliage at rates between 22 and 38 ng m^?2 h^?1. These data suggest that dry foliar surfaces in terrestrial forest landscapes may be a dynamic exchange surface that can function as a source or sink dependent on the magnitude of current Hg° concentrations. These data provide evidence of species-specific compensation concentrations (or compensation points) for Hg° deposition to seedling foliage in the 10–25 ng m^?3 range.     

Public health implications of meat production and consumption

The high level of meat and saturated fat consumption in the USA and other high-income countries exceeds nutritional needs and contributes to high rates of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus and some cancers. Affluent citizens in middle- and low-income countries are adopting similar high-meat diets and experiencing increased rates of these same chronic diseases. The industrial agricultural system, now the predominant form of agriculture in the USA and increasingly world-wide, has consequences for public health owing to its extensive use of fertilisers and pesticides, unsustainable use of resources and environmental pollution. In industrial animal production there are public health concerns surrounding feed formulations that include animal tissues, arsenic and antibiotics as well as occupational health risks and risks for nearby communities. It is of paramount importance for public health professionals to become aware of and involved in how our food is produced.     

Net ecosystem exchange, evapotranspiration and canopy conductance in a riparian forest

The ecosystem fluxes of mass and energy were quantified for a riparian cottonwood (Populus fremontii S. Watson) stand, and the daily and seasonal courses of evapotranspiration, CO₂ flux, and canopy conductance were described, using eddy covariance. The ecosystem-level evapotranspiration results are consistent with those of other riparian studies; high vapor pressure deficit and increased groundwater depth resulted in reduced canopy conductance, and the annual cumulative evapotranspiration of 1095 mm was more than double the magnitude of precipitation. In addition, the cottonwood forest was a strong sink of CO₂, absorbing 310 g C m⁻² from the atmosphere in the first 365 days of the study. On weekly to annual time scales, hydrology was strongly linked with the net atmosphere-ecosystem exchange of CO₂, with ecosystem productivity greatest when groundwater depth was ∼2 m below the ground surface. Increases in groundwater depth beyond the depth of 2 m corresponded with decreased CO₂ uptake and evapotranspiration. Saturated soils caused by flooding and shallow groundwater depths also resulted in reduced ecosystem fluxes of CO₂ and water.     

Methane production and consumption in a cultivated humisol

Summary Laboratory studies were conducted on a cultivated humisol containing populations of both methanotrophs and methanogens. The molar ratio CO₂ produced : O₂ consumed :CH₄ consumed was 0.27:1.0:1.0. Methane oxidation showed typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics with apparent K _m values for CH4 and O₂ of 66.2 M and 37.0 M, respectively. The low CO₂ yields and the effects of low dissolved oxygen indicated the presence of aerobic obligate methanotrophs. It is suggested that the methanotrophs in this soil are not entirely dependent on atmospheric CH₄ for growth and survival in situ.     

倒刺鲃鱼苗耗氧率与窒息点的研究

通过对两种规格的倒刺(Sp in ibarbus d enticu la tus)鱼苗在两种水温条件下进行耗氧率与窒息点测定,结果表明:平均体重(3.53±0.10)g的倒刺鱼苗在水温27.3~28.3°C和30.0~31.0°C时耗氧率分别为0.357 7 m g/(g.h)和0.319 9 m g/(g.h),窒息点分别为0.327 0 m g/L和0.313 1 m g/L;平均体重(7.62±0.11)g的倒刺鱼种在水温27.3~28.3°C和30.0~31.0°C耗氧率分别为0.281 9 m g/(g.h)和0.300 9 m g/(g.h),窒息点分别为0.365 9 m g/L和0.478 4 m g/L。倒刺鱼苗的耗氧率昼夜变化不明显,随着鱼体重的增加而降低,而窒息点则随体重的增加而增加。     

Nitrogen monoxide production and consumption in an organic soil

 Factors controlling NO production, consumption, and emission rates were examined in an organic soil. Emission rates were measured in the enclosed headspaces of intact soil cores under three fertilisation treatments (unfertilised or 100 kg N ha^–1 as NH₄Cl or as NaNO₃), with and without the nitrification inhibitor C₂H₂ (20–70 μl l^–1). Nitrification was always the main source of NO emitted across the soil surface, even when the soil was nearly saturated. Fertilisation of soil with NH₄Cl increased NO emission both by stimulating NO production from nitrification, and by decreasing the NO consumption rate constant. Addition of NaNO₃ also stimulated the production of NO and N₂O during nitrification in aerobic soil slurry experiments. This effect was eliminated by adding C₂H₂ and was therefore not related to denitrification. In loose soil samples, the increase in NO-N production after NH₄Cl addition represented as much as 26% of the added N. However, in intact cores, 95% of the NO produced through nitrification was oxidised within the soil column rather than emitted to the atmosphere. We concluded that nitrification is the primary NO source from this organic soil, that surface NO emissions are much lower than gross NO production rates, and that gaseous N oxide (NO and N₂O) losses during nitrification can be affected by both soil NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^–. Received: 15 December 1998     

Influence of oxygen on production and consumption of nitric oxide in soil

Summary NO and N₂O release rates were measured in an acidic forest soil (pH 4.0) and a slightly alkaline agricultural soil (pH 7.8), which were incubated at different O₂ concentrations (<0.01 – 20% O₂) and at different NO concentrations (40 – 1000 ppbv NO). The system allowed the determination of simultaneously operating NO production rates and NO uptake rate constants, and the calculation of a NO compensation concentration. Both NO production and NO consumption decreased with increasing O₂. NO consumption decreased to a smaller extent than NO production, so that the NO compensation concentrations also decreased. However, the NO compensation concentrations were not low enough for the soils to become a net sink for atmospheric NO. The release of N₂O increased relative to NO release when the gases were allowed to accumulate instead of being flushed out. The forest soil contained only denitrifying, but not nitrifying bacteria, whereas the agricultural soil contained both. Nevertheless, NO release rates were less sensitive to O₂ in the forest soil compared to the agricultural soil.     

Hydrogen consumption and carbon monoxide production in soils with different properties

 Soils are the dominant sink in the global budget of atmospheric H₂, and can be an important local source of atmospheric CO. In order to understand which soil characteristics affect the rates of H₂ consumption and CO production, we measured these activities in 16 different soils at 30% and 60% of their maximum water holding capacity (whc). The soils were obtained from forests, meadows and agricultural fields in Germany and exhibited different characteristics with respect to texture, pH, total C, substrate-induced respiration (SIR), respiration, total and inorganic N, N mineralization, nitrification, N₂O production and NO turnover. The H₂ consumption rate constants were generally lower at 60% than at 30% whc, whereas the CO production rates were not influenced by the whc. Spearman correlation analysis showed that H₂ consumption correlated significantly (r>0.5, P<0.05) at both water contents only with SIR and potential nitrification. The correlation with these variables that are largely dominated by soil microorganisms is consistent with our understanding that atmospheric H₂ is oxidized by soil hydrogenases. Multiple regression analysis and factor analysis gave similar results. Production of CO, on the other hand, was significantly correlated to soil total C, respiration, total N and NH₄ ⁺. The correlation with these variables that are largely dominated by a soil's chemical composition is consistent with our understanding that CO is produced by chemical oxidation of soil organic C. CO production was also influenced by soil usage, with rates increasing in the order: arable<meadow<forest. H₂ consumption was not influenced by soil usage. Received: 28 October 1999     

中国粮食生产与消费中的虚拟水平衡动态变化研究

为优化我国粮食生产水资源利用的空间配置,运用虚拟水分析方法,多尺度分析我国近十年粮食生产和消费中的虚拟水含量空间分布动态变化规律。结果表明:北方粮食生产虚拟水量呈上升趋势,由1998年的3019.1亿m3上升到2007年的3197.5亿m3,上升幅度达5.90%;南方粮食生产虚拟水量则呈下降趋势,由1998年的3207.5亿m3下降到2007年的2801.4亿m3,下降幅度达12.66%。1998～2006年,全国粮食消费虚拟水增长4.43%,年均增长0.49%。北方增长速度快,9年间增长7.70%,而南方则只增长1.84%。近十年全国粮食生产与消费的虚拟水平衡整体表现为负。南方的虚拟水平衡一直为负,且数值呈上升趋势,北方虚拟水平衡态势则整体表现为正。粮食生产和消费的虚拟水资源"北水南调"现象稳定存在,且有增强趋势。其中,东北是虚拟水资源"北水南调"的实质性调出区,黄淮海、华北、东南和华南为实质性调入区。研究结果说明,从水资源的角度看,我国当前的粮食生产和消费格局存在较大问题,需要进行适当调整。     

木薯燃料乙醇生产的技术提升及全生命周期能耗分析

发展燃料乙醇是中国替代能源战略大框架下的成熟模式,木薯燃料乙醇因为不耗用粮食原料也日益提上发展日程.该文引入生命周期理论,对木薯燃料乙醇系统的三个阶段进行了能耗分析,重点讨论了燃料生产阶段采用新旧工艺对周期能耗的影响.能耗计算发现,采用新工艺可以较大地增加系统周期的净能量产出,提高系统的能效;加强副产品的开发,使用农家肥替代化肥也可产生同样的效果.     

气候变化对石羊河流域棉花生产和耗水的影响

为了预测未来气候变化对石羊河流域棉花生产和耗水的影响,该文采用英国Hadley中心的区域气候模式PRECIS并结合COSIM棉花模型,对SRES A2（强调经济发展）和B2（强调可持续发展）2种排放情景下民勤地区的棉花生产和耗水情况进行模拟,并对石羊河流域扩大棉花种植范围的可能性进行了探讨,最后通过调整播期、引进新品种和改变灌溉量等适应措施的提出分析了石羊河流域棉花生产对未来气候变化的响应。结果表明,在PRECIS预测的未来气候变化情景下,到2080s（2071－2100年）民勤地区棉花的生长期明显延长,产量升高,且A2情景下产量高于B2情景,但B2情景下产量的增长速度更快。棉花产量的变异系数减小,种植棉花的风险降低;到2080s民勤棉花的参考作物蒸散量、耗水量和水分利用效率明显提高,棉花生长的用水需求提高,单位水分生产力上升。参考作物蒸散量和耗水量的变异系数增大,棉花受干旱影响的风险加大,水分利用效率变异系数减小,棉花生长的用水效率更稳定;在A2和B2的未来气候情景下,到2080s武威能满足棉花的正常生长,且在A2情景下获得了较高产量,仅从气候变化方面来考虑,未来石羊河流域棉花适宜种植区将扩大, 棉花生产存在一定潜力;当假设其他条件不变时,到2080s,A2情景下适当推迟播期,B2情景下适当提前播期有利于棉花增产。选择早中熟品种替换早熟品种, A2情景下产量明显增加,而B2情景下产量下降,品种的替换存在一定风险。到2080s随着灌溉量的减少棉花产量明显下降,未来如果灌溉量不足、生产用水让位于生态用水将增加石羊河流域棉花生产的风险。     

真空冷冻干燥蒜丁实际生产的能耗研究

为了研究真空冷冻干燥蒜丁实际生产的能耗组成及节能措施,该文根据实地考察食品冷冻干燥厂蒜丁的真空冷冻干燥生产过程所得的资料,研究了冻干蒜丁实际生产过程的能耗,得到实际生产时单位脱水能耗为1.19 kW·h/kg,满足行业标准JB/T 10285-2001规定的冻干设备单位脱水量能耗不高于规定值即蒸汽加热单位脱水耗电量1.22 kW·h/kg的105%的要求。分析了生产过程中产品冻结、冻干过程中制冷系统、真空系统、加热系统、控制系统4大部分的能耗组成,从适当提高制冷系统蒸发温度及提高干燥仓压力等方面提出一些建议并达到了节能的目的,为以后食品冷冻干燥生产的节能设计提供一定参考。     

Effect of water tension on ethylene production and consumption in montane and lowland soils in Austria

The trace gas ethylene affects plant growth and atmospheric chemistry and it interferes with soil restoration. In soil ethylene is simultaneously produced and consumed by different microorganisms. The effects of land use and soil moisture conditions on processes leading to an accumulation of ethylene are still unclear. We measured the rates at which montane and lowland soils from Austria produced and consumed ethylene over a range of water tensions and oxygen supply. Complete anaerobiosis (waterlogging, zero tension) favoured ethylene production, whereas ethylene degradation rates were greatest in soils at 30 kPa water tension. Soils from the lowland region of eastern Austria produced ethylene at rates of up to 12 pmol C₂H₄ g^–1 h^–1 under anaerobic conditions, and they consumed ethylene at rates reaching 231 pmol C₂H₄ g^–1 h^–1, after addition of 20 μl l^–1 ethylene. Deciduous forest soils consumed ethylene fastest. Ethylene formed rapidly and was also consumed rapidly in soils rich in humus and total nitrogen. Soils taken from the mountains both produced and consumed ethylene more rapidly than lowland soils did. Production rates reached 146 pmol C₂H₄ g^–1 h^–1 under anaerobic conditions. Spruce forest soils produced significantly more ethylene than pastures. Ethylene formation was negatively correlated with soil pH. In montane soils ethylene production was related to the availability of simple carbon sources, expressed by the amount of extractable glucose equivalents. Maximum ethylene degradation amounted to 895 pmol g^–1 h^–1. Most of the soils were net sinks for ethylene at a water tension of 30 kPa and drier.     

Effects of soil variables and season on the production and consumption of nitric oxide in oxic soils

Summary NO production rates, NO uptake rate constants, NO compensation points, and different soil variables were determined for various soil types and different soil horizons, and checked for mutual correlations. NO production was detected in all, and NO comsuption in most soils tested. Only soils in a very early state of soil genesis showed no NO consumption activity. NO consumption was positively correlated with soil water and NH ₄ ⁺ contents. NO production rates were not correlated with any soil variable. Both NO production and NO consumption tended to decrease from the upper organic to the deeper mineral horizons in different climax soils. The seasonal variation of NO production and NO consumption in a calcic cambisol and a luvisol showed highest rates in summer. The rates of NO production and NO consumption were correlated with a few of the soil variables, but showed no uniform, theoretically comprehensible pattern. However, NO production in samples of the calcic cambisol was stimulated by fertilization with NH ₄ ⁺ , but not with NO ₃ ^– and was inhibited by nitrapyrin, indicating that NO was produced by nitrification. NO production made up about 3% of the nitrification rates. In the luvisol, in contrast, NO production was not affected by the addition of NH ₄ ⁺ or NO ₃ ^– . Nitrification was also undetectable in this acidic soil, except for a few patches where NO production was also detected.     

Ammonia-oxidizing bacterial and archaeal communities in tropical bioaugmented zero water exchange shrimp production systems

Journal of Soils and Sediments - Ammonia oxidation is an important process in the removal of ammonia generated from feed and metabolic wastes in aquaculture systems. Considering the biogeochemical...     

Effect of moisture,texture and aggregate size of paddy soil on production and consumption of CH4

Laboratory experiments were conducted to find out under which conditions the soil from Italian rice fields could change from a source into a sink of atmospheric CH₄. Moist (30% H₂O=68% of the maximum water holding capacity (whc)) rice field soil oxidized CH₄ with biphasic kinetics, exhibiting both a low (145 ppmv CH₄) and a high (20,200 ppmv CH₄) K_m value and V_max values of 16.8 and 839 nmol gdw⁻¹ h⁻¹, respectively. The activity with the low K_m allowed the oxidation of atmospheric CH₄. Uptake rates of high CH₄ concentrations (16.5% v/v) and of O₂ linearly decreased with aggregate size of soil between 2 and 10 mm. Atmospheric CH₄ (1.8 ppmv) was consumed in soil aggregates <6 mm, but soil aggregates >6 mm released CH₄ into the atmosphere. Similarly, net uptake of atmospheric CH₄ turned into net release of CH₄ when the soil moisture was decreased below a water content of about 20% whc. The uptake rate of atmospheric CH₄ increased threefold when the soil was amended with sterile quartz sand. Flooded microcosms with non-amended and quartz-amended soil emitted CH₄ into the atmosphere. The CH₄ emission rate increased when the flux was measured under an atmosphere of N₂ instead of air, indicating that 30–99% of the produced CH₄ was oxidized in the oxic soil surface layer. Removal of the flood water resulted in increase of CH₄ emission rates until a water content of about 75–82% whc was reached, and subsequently in a rapid decrease. However, the soil microcosms never showed net uptake of atmospheric CH₄. Our results show that the microorganisms consuming atmospheric CH₄ were inactivated at an earlier stage of drainage than the microorganisms producing CH₄, irrespective of the soil porosity which was adjusted by addition of quartz sand. Hence, it is unlikely that the Italian rice fields can act as a net sink for atmospheric CH₄ even when drained.     

Impact of nitrogen cycling associated with production and consumption of food on nitrogen pollution of stream water

We evaluated the impact of nitrogen (N) cycling on N pollution of stream water, with emphasis on N disposed of (hereafter referred to as “disposal N”) from human and livestock excrement and the N surplus in cropland, compared to the total-N concentration of stream water, in seven zones of Asahikawa City characterized by various types of land use. In order to estimate N cycling, we used the Nitrogen Flow Model, composed of the N budgets of human, livestock, and cropland subsystems. The urban area with a population density of over 4,000 persons km^-2 generated a very large amount of disposal N (about 2,700 kg N ha^-1 cropland y^-1). Based on the amount of disposal N and the volume of domestic sewage water used, the N concentration estimated for the urban area was 34 mg N L^-1, which found in the effluent from the sewage treatment facility (24–28 mg N L^-1), regardless of the season. Thus, it was indicated that most of the disposal N in the urban area was discharged directly to streams through the sewage treatment facilities, contributing to a point source of N pollution of stream water. In addition, the disposal N from livestock facilities was larger in pig and poultry farming areas than in other farming areas, contributing to some extent to a potential source of N pollution. As a result, the concentrations increased above 1 mg N L^-1 in the urban and surrounding areas. On the other hand, the N surplus in cropland was practically determined by the N flows associated with chemical fertilizer, livestock excrement as manure, and crop uptake. The N surplus was similar among the seven zones, ranging from 69 to 99 kg N ha^-1 y^-1. The N concentration estimated from the amount of N surplus and 50% of mean annual precipitation as a discharge rate was 13.6–19.5 mg N L^-1. Most of the surplus N was indicated to be leached out. However, the total-N concentration measured in the major streams flowing through Asahikawa City was mostly below 1 mg N L^-1 except for the urban and surrounding areas. The surplus N in cropland may not reach the streams, even if N leaching occurs, probably due to N removal by plant uptake, denitrification, and sedimentation in the riparian zone and stream channels. Thus the effect of agricultural practices on N pollution of stream water was not appreciable.     

Demonstration of two different H2-oxidizing activities in soil using an H2 consumption and a tritium exchange assay

H₂-oxidizing activities were assayed in slurries of four soils by measuring the consumption of H₂ and the exchange of ³H₂ with H₂O at increasing mixing ratios of H₂ or ³H₂. Both H₂ consumption and ³H₂ exchange were abolished by autoclaving or the addition of formaldehyde. The rates of H₂ consumption and ³H₂ exchange were proportional to the quantity of soil used. Both activities increased with increasing concentrations of H₂ or ³H₂ and displayed biphasic kinetics, demonstrating the existence of two different H₂-oxidizing activities, one with a relatively low K _m and V _max, and a second with a relatively high K _m und V _max. The first type of activity was characteristic of abiontic soil hydrogenases, and the second of aerobic H₂-oxidizing bacteria. In contrast to H₂ consumption, which required the presence of either O₂ or ferricyanide, ³H₂ exchange operated equally well without an external electron acceptor. The ³H₂ exchange assay may thus be particularly useful for enrichment of soil hydrogenases which have not yet been isolated and for which no natural electron acceptor is known.     

Separating N2O production and consumption in intact agricultural soil cores at different moisture contents and depths

Agricultural soils are a major source of the potent greenhouse gas and ozone depleting substance, N₂O. To implement management practices that minimize microbial N₂O production and maximize its consumption (i.e., complete denitrification), we must understand the interplay between simultaneously occurring biological and physical processes, especially how this changes with soil depth. Meaningfully disentangling of these processes is challenging and typical N₂O flux measurement techniques provide little insight into subsurface mechanisms. In addition, denitrification studies are often conducted on sieved soil in altered O₂ environments which relate poorly to in situ field conditions. Here, we developed a novel incubation system with headspaces both above and below the soil cores and field-relevant O₂ concentrations to better represent in situ conditions. We incubated intact sandy clay loam textured agricultural topsoil (0–10 cm) and subsoil (50–60 cm) cores for 3–4 days at 50% and 70% water-filled pore space, respectively. ¹⁵N-N₂O pool dilution and an SF₆ tracer were injected below the cores to determine the relative diffusivity and the net N₂O emission and gross N₂O emission and consumption fluxes. The relationship between calculated fluxes from the below and above soil core headspaces confirmed that the system performed well. Relative diffusivity did not vary with depth, likely due to the preservation of preferential flow pathways in the intact cores. Gross N₂O emission and uptake also did not differ with depth but were higher in the drier cores, contrary to expectation. We speculate this was due to aerobic denitrification being the primary N₂O consuming process and simultaneously occurring denitrification and nitrification both producing N₂O in the drier cores. We provide further evidence of substantial N₂O consumption in drier soil but without net negative N₂O emissions. The results from this study are important for the future application of the ¹⁵N-N₂O pool dilution method and N budgeting and modelling, as required for improving management to minimize N₂O losses.