黄河中游多沙粗沙区侵蚀产沙与植被相互作用的临界现象

黄河中游多沙粗沙区是黄土高原境内侵蚀最为强烈的地区,也是下游河道强烈淤积的主要物源区。该区的土壤侵蚀受到多重因素的复合作用,植被作为其最显著的影响因子之一而广受关注。以统计资料为依据,论述了研究区侵蚀模数、林草覆盖度和林木覆盖度的空间分布特征,发现一些相对较大的侵蚀模数与植被覆盖度之间具有良好的非线性关系。将这些相对较大的侵蚀模数定义为极端侵蚀模数——相似植被覆盖度条件下的最大侵蚀模数,并拟合出它们与林草和林木覆盖度之间的定量函数关系,得出极端侵蚀模数由增加到减小的临界林草覆盖度为24.2%,临界林木覆盖度为12%。这就是说,在其它复合因素不发生明显改变的情况下,当研究区林草覆盖度小于24.2%或林木覆盖度小于12%时,极端侵蚀模数随着林草或林木覆盖度的增大而增大;当覆盖度大于上述临界值后,极端侵蚀模数则随之减小。该研究成果对于更有效地管理黄河中游流域具有一定的指导意义。     

Influence of geology, glacial processes and land use on soil composition and Quaternary landscape evolution in The Burren National Park, Ireland

The Burren in County Clare, western Ireland is a glaciated karstic landscape with a fragmented soil and vegetation cover on a predominantly limestone substrate. A representative area approximately 4 km² in extent located within The Burren National Park was studied in order to determine the distributions of soil types and relate these to geology, glacial erosion and deposition, post-glacial mass movements and land use. Mineralogical and particle size analyses indicate the presence of two distinct soil types, one shale-bearing, the other granite-bearing. Geochemical analyses confirm this division and also reveal soils of mixed composition and a distinctive subtype of granite-bearing soil that occurs exclusively on drumlin-like landforms. The soils on the drumlins formed by the decalcification of limestone-rich glacial diamicton (till) containing granite and metamorphic rocks derived from County Galway to the north. The occurrence of mineralogically similar though geochemically heterogeneous soils throughout the area suggests that there was once an extensive thin cover of diamicton, which has almost entirely vanished because of pedogenesis and erosion. Soils containing shale fragments occur in a glacial dispersion train extending south from outcrops of a small body of shale-rich limestone breccia. Isolated patches of shale-bearing soil occurring up to 1.2 km from these outcrops may have formed by the weathering of ice-transported boulders. The presence of relatively deep soil cover on outcrops of the shale/limestone unit is attributed to Holocene weathering to form an erosion-resistant clay-rich soil. Tree charcoal, ¹⁴C-dated to 3300 BP and buried to a depth of 2 m by mixed granite- and shale-bearing soil, indicates that Bronze Age deforestation triggered mass movement and soil erosion. Denudation processes are still active in the Burren landscape.     

Land abandonment,landscape evolution,and soil erosion in a Spanish Mediterranean mountain region: The case of Camero Viejo

The Spanish Mediterranean mountains have played an important social and economic role for many centuries. However, since the 1950s these regions have been considered of little economic interest, and this has led to the abandonment of villages, reduced productive activity, and significant changes in the landscape. In the last 50 years the Camero Viejo region (Iberian System, northeast Spain) has been subject to these changes, and was selected as our study area. Landscape evolution and soil erosion, as a result of agricultural abandonment, were studied using different analysis techniques: photointerpretation, geographic information systems and rainfall simulation. The results showed that a large proportion of previously cultivated land has been subject to plant recolonization processes. From 1956 to 2001, woodlands area increased from 10·1 per cent to 37 per cent, and scrubland increased from 42 per cent to 60 per cent. Changes in landscape structure in the same period suggest that the Camero Viejo is in a transitional stage from a highly humanized landscape to a more natural landscape. Although plant cover expansion is evident on most Camero Viejo hillslopes, in some terraced areas erosion processes are active. The generalized abandonment of agricultural terraces has favored the collapse of the stone walls of the terraces, with sliding of the soil. Surface runoff on abandoned terraces is also important. These erosion processes are related to the hydrological functioning of slopes following abandonment, neglect, and in some areas the intensification of grazing. Terrace destruction has a negative impact on the landscape and represents the loss of fertile soils. Landscape diversity should be preserved as an essential element of the economic potential of the Camero Viejo. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties in the Kali Basin at Lake Balaton, Hungary

Historical land use changes may have significant impact on erosion and agricultural soil properties, including soil degradation by acidification, nutrient leaching and organic matter depletion. The Kali Basin study area, a small catchment of high landscape value located in a national park at Lake Balaton, Hungary, with its historical agricultural records, together with the available unique historical land use data for the last 200 years, provides an opportunity to study and model impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties. Comparison of long-term land uses with present soil degradation indicator parameters showed that permanent arable land use has led to degradation of both the physical and chemical properties of soils in the Kali Basin. Application of the SEDEM/WATEM distributed erosion and sediment transport model showed that, despite the low overall sediment export from the catchment, land use changes introduced by property ownership and agricultural changes have decreased average soil erosion in the catchment but increased relative sediment export to Lake Balaton. This is due to changes in the land cover pattern that allow more sediment transported to the river system. The overall conclusion of this study is that besides the size and area proportion of land use types, land use pattern seems to be equally important in soil erosion and degradation processes, thus land use pattern is a key factor for landscape planning and development in the Kali Basin. A relationship between the sociological and agro-ecological reasons for the recorded land use changes is also shown in this study.     

Post-fire hillslope erosion response in a sub-alpine environment, south-eastern Australia

This paper examines post-fire erosion response in a sub-alpine environment in south-eastern Australia for a period of 2.2 years. Few studies have examined fire impacts on sediment transfer in this environment. Erosion pins were used in grids located at upper, mid and lower slope positions on adjacent burnt and unburnt hillslopes to assess fire effects on the extent of surface level change. The results indicated that there was a significant difference between the surface level change regimes on the burnt and unburnt hillslopes. Estimated erosion rates for the burnt slope over the study period ranged from 2.7 to 94.3 t ha^− 1, which could be considered low given the high slope angles, high precipitation and moderate fire severity. Slope position was critical in modifying post-fire erosion response, as it controlled slope angle and the rate of surface cover regrowth. Analysis of lower slope sites, for which more detailed data was available, indicated a second delayed erosion peak after the initial elevated post-fire response during the following spring snowmelt period. Surface recovery on the lower burnt site was slow, with vegetation cover still comparatively low 2.3 years after the fire. Evidence of post-fire sediment supply limitation was found on this site, with a declining rate of increase in the magnitude of total surface level change, despite limited regrowth and an increasing number of precipitation events > 20 mm for measurement intervals since the fire. Modification of the hillslope surface by fire leads to changing hillslope erosion process dominance in this environment. The post-fire hillslope undergoes erosion by direct rain-drop impact and overland flow, whereas the unburnt slope rarely experiences overland flow due to the thick ground cover. As a result surface level change on the unburnt slope was largely influenced by wetting–drying effects rather than sediment transfer by surface flow. Downslope biotransfer appears to be the dominant sediment movement process in the unburnt sub-alpine forest environment.     

Impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties in the Kali Basin at Lake Balaton,Hungary

Historical land use changes may have significant impact on erosion and agricultural soil properties, including soil degradation by acidification, nutrient leaching and organic matter depletion. The Kali Basin study area, a small catchment of high landscape value located in a national park at Lake Balaton, Hungary, with its historical agricultural records, together with the available unique historical land use data for the last 200 years, provides an opportunity to study and model impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties. Comparison of long-term land uses with present soil degradation indicator parameters showed that permanent arable land use has led to degradation of both the physical and chemical properties of soils in the Kali Basin. Application of the SEDEM/WATEM distributed erosion and sediment transport model showed that, despite the low overall sediment export from the catchment, land use changes introduced by property ownership and agricultural changes have decreased average soil erosion in the catchment but increased relative sediment export to Lake Balaton. This is due to changes in the land cover pattern that allow more sediment transported to the river system. The overall conclusion of this study is that besides the size and area proportion of land use types, land use pattern seems to be equally important in soil erosion and degradation processes, thus land use pattern is a key factor for landscape planning and development in the Kali Basin. A relationship between the sociological and agro-ecological reasons for the recorded land use changes is also shown in this study.     

Landslide occurrence as a response to land use change: a review of evidence from New Zealand

Vegetation cover is an important factor influencing the occurrence and movement of rainfall-triggered landslides, and changes to vegetation cover often result in modified landslide behaviour. However, it is difficult to relate the occurrence of landslides directly to variations in land use, especially in some European countries. In contrast, New Zealand provides a good opportunity to investigate geomorphic responses to anthropogenic land cover changes. Before European settlers first arrived in the 1840s, hilly regions were only marginally influenced by human activity. The Maoris, New Zealand's first settlers, lived largely on coastal plains or near lakes and rivers. They influenced general vegetation cover only through localized burning practices. In contrast, European settlers moved into the back country and converted extensive hill areas from native forest and bush to pasture. This reduced the strength of the regolith and rendered the slopes more susceptible to landslides. Pulses of natural sedimentation in the pre-European period have been related to volcanic activity, climatic variability, including changes in frequency of cyclonic storms and wind erosion and fluvial erosion following forest fires initiated either by volcanic eruptions or lightning strikes. Since European deforestation began, sediment production has largely been determined by landslide events. On unstable slopes, thousands of landslides were triggered by high-magnitude/low-frequency climatic events during storms with estimated return periods in excess of 50 years. In contrast, low-magnitude/high-frequency rainfall events have caused gully and channel erosion. Examples from different parts of New Zealand indicate changes in sediment-generating processes following land use modifications. After deforestation, landslides have contributed significantly to sediment sequences in depositional basins such as lakes, swamps, estuaries, coastal wetlands and the nearshore and offshore zones of continental platforms.     

Land degradation,soil conservation and the sediment load of the Yellow River,China: Review and assessment

Ninety per cent of the sediment load of the Yellow River, the world's muddiest river, comes from the loess plateau region in the middle course of the river. Control of this sediment supply is essential to avoid the danger of flooding in the lower reaches on the South China Plain. Since 1971, sediment loads entering the lower reaches have decreased, by 20 per cent as a result of lower precipitation, and by 27 per cent through soil conservation works and reservoir construction. Reductions in erosion can be obtained by restraining the formation of overland flow through promotion of an effective vegetation cover and elimination of the soil surface cover to encourage infiltration. Reservoir operation is a key to control of sediment movement through tributaries and along the main river. Water demands often conflict with sediment control, and, as a consequence, reservoir operation systems have changed several times in the past decade. The possibility of a further reduction in the sediment load of the Yellow River exists, but much depends on how rapidly control of grazing and deforestation leads to the establishment of plant cover on the loess plateau.     

Chronosequence of pedogenesis and Quaternary Paleoenvironment in Kunming Basin,Yunnan Province,China

Soils on the terrace groups along the eastern coast of Dianchi Lake located south of Kunming, Yunnan Province, China, consist of a series of chronose-quences reflecting the age of terrace formation and environmental changes since the early Pleistocene. Red-colored soils with reticulated mottlings on the higher terraces are classified as Argillic Latored soils, corresponding to Rhodic Nitisols (FAQ-Unesco) or Rhodic Kandiudults (USDA), whereas red-colored soils on the middle terraces are classified as Agric Red soils, corresponding to Rhodic Nitisols (FAO-Unesco) or Typic Rhodudalfs (USDA). On the other hand, soils on the lower terraces are classified as Haplic Yellow-brown soils, corresponding to Eutric Cambisols (FAO-Unesco) or Dystric Eutrochrepts (USDA). The Argillic Latored soils. Agric Red soils and Haplic Yellow-brown soils date back to the middle Pleistocene, late Pleistocene and Holocene, respectively. It is also possible that the Argillic Latored soils were formed under a subtropical monsoon forest climate, the Agric Red soils under a southern warm-temperate lucidophyllus forest climate, and the Haplic Yellow-brown soils under the present northern warm-temperate deciduous broadleaved forest climate.     

Gully erosion associated with the expansion of unterraced almond cultivation in the coastal Sierra de Lujar,S. Spain

Since Moorish times, the lower slopes of the Sierra de Lujar in southern Spain have been intensively cultivated. Despite steep slopes and the highly erodible nature of the local micaschist/quartzite bedrock and derivative Quaternary sequences, accelerated erosion has largely been contained throughout this history by substantial, well-maintained rock terraces. However, since 1987, European Union (EU) agricultural policy has been to encourage the cultivation of certain crops by subsidising their expanded cultivation on a ‘per hectare’ basis. This has resulted in hasty clearance of native Mediterranean matorral on sites really unsuitable for the local staple crop (almonds), and erosion-prevention terraces are often absent or rudimentary. Gullying is now a very serious problem on some of these newly cleared sites. This paper identifies the lithological, topographic and agricultural policy controls on the consequent gully distribution, and then explores the pedological and hydrological controls on gully initiation on a single unterraced slope. Using these results alongside morphological data from gully surveys, a gully initiation and growth model is presented. This suggests that two types of gully are present in the area. ‘Type 1’ or upper-slope gullies are initiated by overland flows, which are relatively infrequent. By contrast, ‘type 2’ or slope-base gully initiation involves saturation and collapse in fossil landslip scars in Holocene colluvium. These two very different morphological systems may integrate through the terminal fan of the upslope gullies, in a manner described by Tiexeira de Oliveira 1990. The implications of this are that in the study area, sediment removal is associated with a very few highly productive sites. Contemporary management is briefly assessed against this model of geomorphic change in the area.     

Investigating the effects of afforestation on soil erosion and sediment mobilisation in two small catchments in Southern Italy

Annual soil losses in southern Italy can exceed 100–150 t ha^− 1 year^− 1. Where erosion on agricultural land is particularly severe, land use change and afforestation are frequently seen as the most appropriate means of reducing erosion risk. However, the overall effectiveness of afforestation in reducing soil erosion remains uncertain, due to the poor development of the forest cover in some areas, leading to significant areas with sparse tree cover, and the erosional impact of forest harvesting, which commonly involves clearcutting. The study reported here addresses this uncertainty and focuses on two small catchments (W2 and W3) located in Calabria, southern Italy, for which measurements of suspended sediment yield are available. Both the catchments originally supported a rangeland vegetation cover and they were planted with eucalyptus trees in 1968. Currently, only catchment W3 supports a continuous forest cover. In catchment W2 the forest cover is discontinuous and there is a significant area of the catchment (ca. 20%) where the tree cover is sparse and the vegetation cover is dominated by natural grasses. Two additional erosion plots were established within catchment W2 in 1991, in order to explore the effect of the density of the tree cover on soil erosion. Information on the sediment yields from the two catchments and the plots for 10 storm events that occurred during the period December 2005–December 2006 and associated information on the ¹³⁷Cs and excess ²¹⁰Pb of the sediment, have been used to investigate the effectiveness of afforestation in reducing sediment mobilisation and net soil loss from the catchments involved. The results demonstrate that the areas of greatest soil loss are associated with the slopes where the tree cover is discontinuous, and that forest harvesting by clearcutting causes significant short-term increases in sediment mobilisation and sediment yield. These findings, which are consistent with previous work undertaken within the same area, emphasize the importance of vegetation cover density in influencing rates of soil loss in the study catchments. The study also provided a useful demonstration of the potential for using measurements of the ¹³⁷Cs and ²¹⁰Pb_ex content of sediment, in combination with more traditional sediment monitoring, to investigate sediment sources and to compare the sediment dynamics of catchments subjected to different land management practices.     

建设长江流域整体防护林体系的计划

目前,长江流域主要灾害有洪水、水土流失和泥沙淤积,其中水土流失造成地力下降,产量减低,航道缩短,水库失效。建设全流域整体防护林体系,是消除和控制这些危害的根本。它们是:一、上游高山峡谷区水源涵养林体系;二、中游水土保持林体系;三、中下游平原农田林网和护岸林体系。这些整体防护林体系建成后,长江流域的森林覆被率可达20—30%,生态系统就会实现良性循环。     

水蚀风蚀交错区典型流域景观格局变化对土壤侵蚀过程的影响

流域土壤侵蚀过程与景观格局的关系是评价流域景观格局合理性的关键问题。以GIS软件为分析平台,以最新提出的"源""汇"景观理论为基础,以水蚀风蚀交错区典型流域——六道沟流域1995,2010年土地利用/覆被格局为分析对象,以淤地坝淤积量作为土壤侵蚀监测信息,利用景观空间负荷对比指数分别分析了这2个时期各景观类型随空间要素配置、贡献权重和组成比例对土壤侵蚀过程的影响,最后对该指数的变化与土壤侵蚀模数的变化进行相关性分析。结果表明:2010年与1995年相比,六道沟流域各集水区的相对高度、坡度、投影距离、运移距离负荷对比指数均呈减小趋势,景观格局分布更加合理,水土流失危险性降低,与同期土壤侵蚀模数变化趋势相同。坡度负荷对比指数增量与土壤侵蚀模数增量相关性较弱,相对高度、投影距离、运移距离负荷对比指数增量与土壤侵蚀模数增量呈显著正相关,运移距离负荷对比指数反映土壤侵蚀过程对景观格局变化响应的效果最好。景观格局负荷对比指数与土壤侵蚀实测值之间均存在较大差异,应进一步改进模拟方法以达到准确量化的目标。坡度负荷对比指数不能很好地解释景观格局对土壤侵蚀过程的影响,需要在坡度取值方式上加以改进。     

SOIL EROSION,CONSERVATION, AND ECO‐ENVIRONMENT CHANGES IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA

As one of the best‐known areas in the world, the Loess Plateau, has long been suffering from serious soil erosion. The present paper reviewed the historical variation of climate, vegetation cover, and environment changes in order to understand the causes of severe soil erosion. Documentary evidence indicated that climate changes and vegetation cover were the dominant natural factors influencing the soil erosion rates during the Holocene. Intensive human activities consisting of warfare, population growth, deforestation, and soil and water conservation measures were responsible for the changes of soil erosion during the anthropogenic period. Spatial and temporal changes of specific sediment yields presented significant decrease within the last several decades, which resulted from decreasing rainfall, large scale soil and water conservation measures, agricultural irrigation, and reservoir construction. Different phase of soil conservation measures demonstrated the development of policies and techniques on soil erosion control. Effective strategies of soil and water conservation, consisting of terracing, afforestation, natural rehabilitation, and check‐dams construction, were carried out on the Loess Plateau during the past six decades. The progress of soil conservation measures confirmed that the check‐dams systems might be suitable for Loess hilly Plateau, and natural vegetation rehabilitation is the best way for soil erosion control and should be implemented in other regions with emphasis of improving the quality of conservation measures based on natural rehabilitation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

长江上游紫色丘陵区土壤侵蚀与泥沙输移比研究——以涪江流域为例

 通过涪江流域水文站控制区域的地貌与土地利用类型的综合分析,以不同土地利用类型地块作为侵蚀量计算单元,计算每个流域发生侵蚀的地块（即旱坡地、陡坡旱地、有林地、疏林地、草地、灌木地和裸地）侵蚀量,得到全流域年均侵蚀量为2 460万t/a,年均侵蚀模数为813.9 t/（km2.a）,上游山地区侵蚀模数>1 000 t/（km2.a）,紫色丘陵区侵蚀模数50～0800t/（km2.a）;流域平均泥沙输移比为0.83,上游泥沙输移比>0.90,中下游丘陵区泥沙输移比在0.30～0.80之间,而在流域上中游山地丘陵衔接的冲洪积扇区的年均泥沙沉积量约144万t/a;流域泥沙输移比与流域面积不存在固定的线性关系,其根本原因在于流域面积是度量衡单位,而不是影响因素。     

Impervious surface impacts to runoff and sediment discharge under laboratory rainfall simulation

Urbanization of watersheds previously managed for agricultural uses results in hydrologic changes associated with increased flooding and erosion. Few studies have been conducted to quantify these effects under controlled conditions and standard rainfall simulation methodologies have not been previously established. In this study, a laboratory rainfall simulation procedure was developed and utilized to evaluate hydrologic and sheet erosional responses to various configurations of impervious surface cover at the small scale. Runoff and sediment losses from a sloped (5%) cascade of soil boxes having 50% impervious cover located at the top of the slope or at the bottom of the slope, or having 0% impervious cover were measured. Results indicate that the 50% upslope impervious treatment generated sediment at 3–5 times the rate of the 50% downslope impervious treatment. Upslope impervious cover resulted in initially lower water runoff rates than channel development, but this effect narrowed or reversed with continued rainfall. These results suggest that upslope impervious surfaces may represent a larger total on-site erosion risk than equivalent impervious surfaces located at lower positions along the slope, especially under high antecedent soil moisture and/or high intensity rainfall.     

Identification of eroded areas using remote sensing in a badlands landscape on marls in the central Spanish Pyrenees

Identification of erosion areas on a regional scale can be very useful for environmental planning, and can help reduce land degradation and sediment yield to streams and reservoirs. Remote sensing techniques were used to determine erosion and erosion risk areas in a badlands landscape in the Ésera River catchment (Spanish Pyrenees). The size, sparse vegetation cover, and high erosion level in the badlands, enabled good visual and digital discrimination relative to other land covers and surfaces. The maximum likelihood algorithm was used for obtaining a spectral distance map to the bare soil signature characteristic of badlands on marls. The ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curve analysis was applied to this map for obtaining an optimum classification of the badlands. Two alternative classification thresholds were set to determine erosion areas and areas at risk of erosion. Two classification performance statistics, the model's sensitivity and specificity, were calculated as a means of expressing the uncertainty–omission and commission errors–associated to both maps. Most erosion risk areas coincided with low vegetation cover surrounding the badland areas.     

Holocene landscape evolution of a nivation hollow on Gassan volcano,northern Japan

This paper describes the results of detailed surveys for the landscape systems (landforms, vegetation, topsoils and snow cover duration) of a nivation hollow in northern Japan and discusses their evolution in the Holocene epoch. The nivation hollow studied consists of three concentric zones whose landscapes and historical development are different. The outermost zone where snow disappears early is covered with dwarfed trees, Sasa kurilensis (subalpine bamboo) thicket and snowbed grasses. Fossil solifluction lobes and drainage channels are common. In this zone, slope stabilization and vegetation establishment (penetration and settlement of vegetation on slopes) followed by pedogenesis occurred after 12,350 cal BP. In the middle zone, slopes are mostly covered with snowbed plants, and turf-banked terraces and minor slumps are observed. This zone experienced slope stabilization and vegetation establishment followed by pedogenesis after 4870 cal BP. The innermost zone overlaps with the snow-induced bare ground in the centre of the nivation hollow basin. Active geomorphic processes operate here and traces of surficial wash and rills are abundant. Humic soils are not present in this zone. These differences in landscape development of the nivation hollow may reflect the temporal changes in the timings of snow disappearance associated with the Holocene climatic variabilities.     

高寒山区冰川河流悬移泥沙的输移特征

[目的] 分析不同区域冰川河流的水沙关系、输沙量及其对气候变化的响应,并对泥沙侵蚀强度进行评估,为高寒山区冰川河流的水沙动态研究提供理论基础。[方法] 选取绒布河和科其喀尔河作为研究对象,在消融期间（2018年5—10月）对冰川河进行野外观测和水样采集。考虑气温和降水的影响,采用水文模型法对绒布河径流量进行模拟,结合水沙关系曲线、泥沙滞后环及回归模型对冰川河流的悬移泥沙输移及其影响因素进行分析。[结果] 气温是影响高寒山区冰川河流悬移泥沙运输的主要因素;绒布河和科其喀尔河消融期的径流模数约7.36×10⁵,6.82×10⁵ m³/（km²·a）,输沙模数分别为200 t/（km²·a）和890 t/（km²·a）。[结论] 绒布冰川对气候变化更加敏感,消融强度大,泥沙主要来源于融水与降水对河道底部与坡面的侵蚀,但是可侵蚀沉积物和水力条件不足,造成该地区输沙模数低于其他冰川;科其喀尔河地处西北干旱区,泥沙输移量主要是由泥沙来源决定的,随着气温的升高,大量冰碛物被输送到下游,侵蚀强度明显高于其他大多数冰川。