The process of systematic review and its application in agri-food public-health

Foodborne illness is an important public-health concern. Livestock operations represent the original source of many foodborne pathogens. Policy- and decision-makers in the area of agri-food public-health need dependable information on interventions to reduce foodborne diseases. While individual studies might be weak or reach contradictory conclusions, the body of information contained in all studies might reveal a clearer picture of the state of knowledge. A formal process has been developed for conducting systematic reviews of the human healthcare literature. Systematic reviews differ from traditional narrative reviews in that systematic reviews follow a structured research protocol to reduce sources of bias at all stages of the review. This includes the objective, the literature search, the identification of relevant literature, quality assessment of relevant studies, summarization or statistical analysis of data, and conclusions. To date, systematic reviews have not been widely used in agri-food public-health. Existing systematic reviews on agri-food public-health topics revealed a scarcity of rigorously conducted intervention research, indicating a need for additional high quality primary studies. The specific protocols used to conduct systematic reviews in agri-food public-health need to accommodate the use of challenge studies and observational studies, the lack of randomized controlled trials, and the clustering of animal populations.     

International programs and veterinary public health in the Americas—Success, challenges, and possibilities

The veterinary public health (VPH) program at the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) began in 1949 when an arrangement with the newly founded World Health Organization made PAHO its Regional Office for the Americas to serve as the specialized health agency both for the Organization of American States and the United Nations. It started as a Section of Veterinary Medicine to help eradicate rabies on both sides of the US-Mexico border, and PAHO grew to be the biggest VPH program in the world. By providing a political and technical base, PAHO assisted its member states to organize and develop their national VPH programs and activities, and it provides technical cooperation and works with their national counterparts to solve national and local problems.In the 1980s and 1990s, PAHO concentrated that cooperation on several, specific needs: the elimination of dog-transmitted human rabies, hemispheric eradication of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), regional action planning for food safety, control/eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, and surveillance and prevention of emerging zoonoses and food-borne diseases. The Pan American centers developed a number of diagnostic antigens and a continental system for the surveillance of FMD and vesicular diseases, using geographic quadrant technology to augment sensitivity, analyze data, and make decisions. Another visible accomplishment is the elimination of hydatidosis in the endemic countries and regions of the southern cone.In addition, the VPH program of PAHO pioneered the mobilization of the private sector to participate in official programs. Nevertheless, privatization of animal and human health services has had a negative effect on human resources and infrastructure by weakening essential epidemiological functions in some countries.Today, there is a need for closer coordination between veterinary medicine and medical services. Practically all potential bioterrorism agents are zoonoses, and it is cost-effective to control them at the veterinary level, providing the first line of defense. The opportunities for VPH are boundless, but the challenge is to be able to apply the plethora of available research results and knowledge. What we will need is a new breed of veterinarians who will lead and provide us with a vision, like those we honored in 2005 at the Schwabe Symposium Honoring the Lifetime Achievements of Dr. James H. Steele: veterinarians in public health who will be in the forefront of policy setting, decision-making, and allocation of resources, and veterinarians who will articulate and provide a strategic direction to our unique professional skills.     

A systematic review and meta-analysis of Hymenolepis nana in human and rodent hosts in Iran: A remaining public health concern

Hymenolepis nana, as a neglected zoonotic helminth, naturally occurs in both humans and rodents. Herein, a systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out to estimate pooled prevalence of H. nana infection among human and rodent hosts for the first time in Iran. PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase databases (English articles) and SID and Magiran databases (Persian articles) were systematically searched for relevant studies published from inception till May 24, 2020. Chi² and I² index were used to assess the heterogeneity of the included studies. Publication bias was assessed using Egger's intercept and visual inspection of the funnel plot. Pooled prevalence was estimated using random-effects model with 95 % confidence interval (CI) and depicted as a forest plot. STATA software was used for analysis. The overall pooled prevalence estimate of H. nana in humans included 1.2 % (95 % CI = 1.0–1.4%). Subgroup analysis revealed 2.2 % (95 % CI = 1.8–2.6%) and 0.5 % (95 % CI = 0.3 to 0.8 %) of H. nana infection among school children and food handlers, respectively. In terms of rodent hosts, the overall pooled prevalence of H. nana infection included 13 % (95 % CI = 9.3–16.6%). Subgroup analysis revealed the highest rate of the infection was in Rattus spp. (19.6 %; 95 % CI = 10.6–28.6%), a genus with synanthropic behavior. It seems, despite the advancement in sanitation infrastructure and hygiene status, the H. nana infection compares to other helminthic diseases remains a challenging public health problem in Iran.     

Diagnostic and public health investigation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a dog in Ontario,Canada

A 4-y-old, female mixed-breed dog was presented to the Ontario Veterinary College for further evaluation of multiple pulmonary and hepatic masses, intrathoracic lymphadenitis, and recent development of a pyogranulomatous pleural effusion. Along with other comprehensive tests, a thoracic lymph node biopsy was performed, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection was confirmed by real-time PCR. The dog’s condition declined post-operatively, and euthanasia was elected. Postmortem examination confirmed severe granulomatous pneumonia, hepatitis, intrathoracic and intraabdominal lymphadenitis, omentitis, and nephritis. Line-probe assays performed on samples collected postmortem confirmed the species as M. tuberculosis. 24-loci MIRU-VNTR genotyping, spoligotyping, and whole-genome sequencing revealed relations to known human isolates, but no epidemiologic link to these cases was investigated. Given the concern for potential human exposure during this animal’s disease course, a public health investigation was initiated; 45 individuals were tested for M. tuberculosis exposure, and no subsequent human infections related to this animal were identified. Our case highlights the need for more readily available, minimally invasive testing for the diagnosis of canine mycobacteriosis, and highlights the ability of canid species to act as potential contributors to the epidemiology of M. tuberculosis infections.     

动物健康体系建设与公共卫生一体化构建研究

动物健康体系最初在澳大利亚和加拿大等国建立,在动物疾病防控方面起到了十分重要的作用.本文对澳大利亚已建立的动物健康体系和我国兽医医疗体制进行对比,分析在我国建立更合理的官方兽医制度和动物健康体系以加快兽医与人医公共卫生一体化进程的对策.     

浅析畜牧生产中的动物福利与人兽共患病和公共卫生安全

近年来全球因人兽共患病引发的公共卫生事件频繁发生,对世界经济的发展和全球公共卫生安全带来了严峻挑战,此已引起国际社会的高度关注。有专家指出：人类对动物“严酷的剥削与过度的利用”,是造成了人禽（人畜）共患流行性疾病不断暴发的原因。本文阐述了动物福利与畜牧生产的关系和非福利因素对动物生理健康的影响。以期引起全社会关注和促进动物福利事业的发展,积极为畜牧生产中的动物创造一个精神上协调一致、生理上完全健康的生存状态,减少动物疫病（特别是人兽共患病）的发生与流行,保障畜牧业的发展与公共卫生安全。     

International trade, animal health and veterinary epidemiology: challenges and opportunities

The link between international trade, animal health and epidemiology has been recognized for a long time and has taken an additional importance in the aftermath of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and of the inception of the World Trade Organization. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organization demands that sanitary and phytosanitary measures be scientifically based, placing epidemiology at the center of decisions related animal health and trade. This paper analyses the interactions between international trade of animals (and animal products) and epidemiology with discussion on the inputs of epidemiology in surveillance, risk analysis and regionalization.     

The influence of veterinary epidemiology on public health: past, present and future

This paper summarizes a presentation given at the Association for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine sponsored Calvin W. Schwabe symposium honouring the lifetime achievements of Dr. S. Wayne Martin. While the concepts were amalgamated from many sources, the examples were primarily selected to represent areas where Wayne Martin has been an active researcher and educator. The purpose was to describe the impact of veterinary epidemiology on public health in the past and present and to consider the future of veterinary epidemiology in public health. Veterinary medicine contributes to public health not only in the area of zoonotic disease prevention and control, but also through contributions to animal health, comparative and basic medical research, and population and environmental health. Veterinary epidemiologists contribute to both research in public health and the practice of public health through a wide range of methodological approaches and via the networks of trained epidemiologists working in the area. The contributions of veterinary epidemiologists have resulted in significant improvements in human health. There are considerable challenges and opportunities facing veterinary epidemiologists working in the public health area in the future. Meeting these needs will require continued integration between veterinary and human public health research and practice, and enhanced communication of both content and context expertise.     

Bovine cysticercosis in cattle slaughtered at Awassa municipal abattoir, Ethiopia: prevalence, cyst viability, distribution and its public health implication

A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2005 to April 2006 on bovine cysticercosis in cattle slaughtered at Awassa municipal abattoir with the objective of determining the prevalence of Taenia saginata cysticercosis, cyst viability, distribution and its public health implication. Questionnaire survey involving 120 respondents was also conducted on human taeniasis. A total of 400 carcasses were examined during the study period, of which 105 (26.25%) were infected with T. saginata metacestodes. From a total of 3200 samples inspected, 500 cysticerci were detected in 141 samples, of which 221 (44.2%) were alive. The anatomical distribution of cysticerci were 65 (29.2%) heart, 56 (25.3%) shoulder muscle, 59 (26.7%) masseter, 23 (10.4%) tongue, 12 (5.4%) diaphragm, three (1.4%) liver, two (0.9%) lung and one (0.5%) kidney samples. The prevalence varied significantly between local and crossbred animals (OR = 3.15, P < 0.05), but not varied between sex, age groups and origin of the animals. T. saginata taeniasis was a widespread public health problem in the town with an overall prevalence of 64.2% (77 of 120). The potential risk factors for disease contraction were raw meat consumption, religion and occupational risks. In conclusion, the study revealed high prevalence of T. saginata metacestodes throughout the edible organs together with existence of deep-rooted tradition of raw meat consumption. This may magnify the public health hazards of T. saginata in the study area. As a result, the disease deserves due attention to safeguard the public health and further promote beef industry in the country.     

SARS-CoV-2 in animals: potential for unknown reservoir hosts and public health implications

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, previously 2019-nCoV) is suspected of having originated in 2019 in China from a coronavirus infected bat of the genus Rhinolophus. Following the initial emergence, possibly facilitated by a mammalian bridge host, SARS-CoV-2 is currently transmitted across the globe via efficient human-to-human transmission. Results obtained from experimental studies indicate that animal species such as cats, ferrets, raccoon dogs, cynomolgus macaques, rhesus macaques, white-tailed deer, rabbits, Egyptian fruit bats, and Syrian hamsters are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and that cat-to-cat and ferret-to-ferret transmission can take place via contact and air. However, natural infections of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported only in pet dogs and cats, tigers, lions, snow leopards, pumas, and gorillas at zoos, and farmed mink and ferrets. Even though human-to-animal spillover has been reported at several instances, SARS-CoV-2 transmission from animals-to-humans has only been reported from mink-to-humans in mink farms. Following the rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 within the mink population, a new mink-associated SARS-CoV-2 variant emerged that was identified in both humans and mink. The increasing reports of SARS-CoV-2 in carnivores indicate the higher susceptibility of animal species belonging to this order. The sporadic reports of SARS-CoV-2 infection in domestic and wild animal species require further investigation to determine if SARS-CoV-2 or related Betacoronaviruses can get established in kept, feral or wild animal populations, which may eventually act as viral reservoirs. This review analyzes the current evidence of SARS-CoV-2 natural infection in domestic and wild animal species and their possible implications on public health.     

Reviewing the role of aquaria as restorative settings: how subaquatic diversity in public aquaria can influence preferences,and human health and well-being

Throughout evolutionary history, humans have developed strong reactions to animals and landscape features that have either aided or hindered survival and well-being. Exposure to natural environments provides many perceived and actual health benefits, including reduced mental fatigue, improved mood, and decreased stress and anxiety. Studies exploring humans’ responses to their surroundings, however, tend to focus on terrestrial environments. In contrast, fewer studies have focused on humans’ reactions to aquatic settings, or the biodiversity found within them. We provide an overview of the various health and well-being benefits associated with humans’ relationships with different aquatic settings and focus on one particular setting: simulated underwater environments (aquaria). We provide a review of aquaria-related studies, including emerging research on how different subaquatic species influence human health and well-being outcomes. Finally, we suggest ways in which the benefits of underwater biodiversity can be further researched.     

The application of epidemiology in aquatic animal health -opportunities and challenges

ABSTRACT: Over recent years the growth in aquaculture, accompanied by the emergence of new and transboundary diseases, has stimulated epidemiological studies of aquatic animal diseases. Great potential exists for both observational and theoretical approaches to investigate the processes driving emergence but, to date, compared to terrestrial systems, relatively few studies exist in aquatic animals. Research using risk methods has assessed routes of introduction of aquatic animal pathogens to facilitate safe trade (e.g. import risk analyses) and support biosecurity. Epidemiological studies of risk factors for disease in aquaculture (most notably Atlantic salmon farming) have effectively supported control measures. Methods developed for terrestrial livestock diseases (e.g. risk-based surveillance) could improve the capacity of aquatic animal surveillance systems to detect disease incursions and emergence. The study of disease in wild populations presents many challenges and the judicious use of theoretical models offers some solutions. Models, parameterised from observational studies of host pathogen interactions, have been used to extrapolate estimates of impacts on the individual to the population level. These have proved effective in estimating the likely impact of parasite infections on wild salmonid populations in Switzerland and Canada (where the importance of farmed salmon as a reservoir of infection was investigated). A lack of data is often the key constraint in the application of new approaches to surveillance and modelling. The need for epidemiological approaches to protect aquatic animal health will inevitably increase in the face of the combined challenges of climate change, increasing anthropogenic pressures, limited water sources and the growth in aquaculture. TABLE OF CONTENTS: 1 Introduction 42 The development of aquatic epidemiology 73 Transboundary and emerging diseases 93.1 Import risk analysis (IRA) 103.2 Aquaculture and disease emergence 113.3 Climate change and disease emergence 133.4 Outbreak investigations 134 Surveillance and surveys 154.1 Investigation of disease prevalence 154.2 Developments in surveillance methodology 164.2.1 Risk-based surveillance and scenario tree modelling 164.2.2 Spatial and temporal analysis 164.3 Test validation 175 Spread, establishment and impact of pathogens 185.1 Identifying routes of spread 185.1.1 Ex-ante studies of disease spread 195.1.2 Ex-post observational studies 215.2 Identifying risk factors for disease establishment 235.3 Assessing impact at the population level 245.3.1 Recording mortality 245.3.2 Farm health and production records 265.3.3 Assessing the impact of disease in wild populations 276 Conclusions 317 Competing interests 328 Authors' contributions 329 Acknowledgements 3310 References 33.     

Prevalence of fasciolosis in livestock and humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis in Iran

Fasciolosis is a re-emerging disease of livestock and rarely human, being endemic in Iran. Herein, we aimed to quantitatively assess the human seropositivity and prevalence of animal fasciolosis in our country. English and Persian databases were searched for online literature. In total, 10 human seroprevalence studies and 49 animal investigations were obtained from January 1999 to March 2019. Only animal studies were included in meta-analysis. The highest human seroprevalence was detected in Guilan province (326/452; 50%). The pooled prevalence of the animal infections was calculated as 6.2% (95% CI = 5.8%–6.5%). In detail, the prevalence ranges in three hosts included as 4.2% (95% CI = 3.8%–4.5%) in sheep, 9% (95% CI = 8.0%–9.9%) in cattle and 3.1% (95% CI = 2.4%–3.7%) in goat. The highest prevalence rate was observed in the north, 11.8% (95% CI = 8.4%–15.1%), while the lowest prevalence was detected in the central Iran with 1.8% (95% CI = 1.3%–2.3%). Egger’s regression test revealed no significant publication bias (P = 0.307). Also, there was no remarkable correlation between weighted prevalence and sample size (P = 0.249) as well as year of study (P = 0.172). These findings would be necessary for better preventive strategies in case of human and animal Fasciola infections as well as snail intermediate hosts.     

The challenges of implementing an integrated One Health surveillance system in Australia

As 75 per cent of emerging infectious diseases are of animal origin, a One Health approach that integrates the health of humans, animals and the environment could provide an earlier opportunity for zoonotic disease detection and prevention. In Australia, human, animal and ecological health are managed by separate sectors with limited communication. This study aims to explore how professionals in these fields perceive a One Health approach to zoonotic disease surveillance, aiming to identify the challenges to the implementation of an integrated system in Australia. Using a qualitative research method, ten semistructured interviews were conducted with academic experts to gain insight into the possibility of developing an integrated surveillance system in Australia. A thematic analysis of the data was undertaken. Findings showed the absence of a clear definition and subsequent vision for the future of One Health act as a barrier to interdisciplinary collaboration, and that siloed approaches by different sectors restrict the ability for professionals to work collaboratively across disciplines. An understanding of disease transmission was considered by participants to be a necessary requirement for a successful One Health approach. Finally, participants considered political will an essential requirement for the integration of surveillance systems. This study demonstrates that for a One Health approach to be implemented in an Australian setting, those working in the fields of human, animal and ecological health must agree on several aspects. The establishment of a formal governance body with representatives from each sector could assist in overcoming long‐standing barriers of privacy and distrust. Further, developing interdisciplinary training in One Health concepts for medical, environmental and veterinary students may encourage cross‐disciplinary collaboration. Finally, demonstrating to policymakers the economic benefit of improved and timely detection of zoonoses may help in facilitating a structured One Health approach to disease surveillance in Australia.     

Echinococcosis/hydatidosis: its prevalence,economic and public health significance in Tigray region,North Ethiopia

A cross sectional study was carried out to assess the prevalence, economic and public health significance of echinococcosis/hydatidosis in Tigray Regional State, north Ethiopia. Out of 18 stray dogs euthanized and examined, three of them were found harboring the adult parasite Echinococcus granulosus in their small intestine. From 5,194 cattle examined at slaughter houses, 1146 (22.1%) of them were found harboring hydatid cyst. The majority of the infected cattle had hydatid cyst in both liver and lungs. The hydatid cyst infection in the lung, liver, kidney, heart and spleen were found to be 13%, 8.1%, 0.5%, 0.4%, and 0.1%, respectively. The estimated total annual loss from bovine hydatidosis due to offal condemnation (lungs and liver) and carcass weight loss was 25,608 Ethiopian (Eth.) Birr. The present human hydatidosis survey conducted in all six zonal hospitals of Tigray Regional State disclosed one active clinical case in Mekelle hospital during the study period. While, the retrospective data analyses of the six zonal hospitals indicated that eight cases of human hydatidosis were diagnosed since 2000. Thus echinococcosis/hydatidosis is considerably prevalent disease in cattle and it is a serious public health concern in Tigray region.     

Reforming communal rangeland policy in southern Africa: challenges,dilemmas and opportunities

In the savanna rangelands of southern Africa, the debate about land reform tends to be about the redistribution of formerly freehold ranches and fencing-off the rangeland commons into ranches for better-off African farmers. The position of those who favour privatisation has been strengthened by the belief that the only environmentally sound way to manage the range is to subdivide it into private ranches because traditional open-range pastoralism is environmentally destructive. This point of view is at variance with an ever-increasing body of research. Insufficient attention has been given to the sustainable nature of communal rangeland in savanna areas and to the needs of the poor who depend upon them. Following decades of policies that further reduced and fragmented the commonage, governments have the challenging task of developing and implementing policies for those whose livelihoods depend on more secure and sustainable access to the remaining communal rangelands.     

我国宠物源人畜共患病流行现状与公共卫生安全

近年来,我国宠物饲养数量激增带来的宠物源人畜共患病隐患已日益增加。强化宠物源人畜共患病的防范意识,采取有效措施控制疫病发生,对于保障公共卫生安全具有十分重要的现实意义。对宠物源人畜共患病流行现状做一综述,分析人畜共患病高发的原因,并提出解决这一问题的对策建议。     

The application of information technology in the teaching of veterinary epidemiology and public health

Information technology (IT) is an imprecise term currently used to describe computer-based techniques for data manipulation, storage, dissemination, publication, and retrieval. IT possesses several characteristics that promote meaningful learning, including (1) just-in-time, personalized; (2) student-centered versus teacher-centric; (3) self-paced; (4) anytime, anywhere; and (5) discovery (through bibliographic and other information searches). However, if done improperly, IT-based teaching can be counterproductive. Factors to consider when evaluating the effectiveness of IT-based teaching methods include (1) content, (2) learning, (3) delivery support, (4) usability, and (5) technological. IT has been used to support instruction in epidemiology and public health at many levels, ranging from basic computer literacy to hands-on training in epidemiological methods through computer-based problem sets, case workups, outbreak investigations, and tutorials. Online quizzes based on articles selected from practice-oriented journals have been used to promote evidence-based medicine skills, including the critical evaluation of medical claims. As online access and delivery improve, opportunities for substantive online education and lifelong learning through IT have expanded. One of the most novel and comprehensive implementations of collaborative online sharing of educational content in epidemiology and public health is the Epidemiology Supercourse (http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/). More than 9,000 faculty from 118 countries have contributed to an online library of more than 700 lectures with quality control and adherence to accepted pedagogic principles. The goal is to improve teaching and research in epidemiology and public health worldwide. Although the focus is on human medicine, the concepts, methods, and principles can easily be applied to veterinary medicine. The Association for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine (AVEPM) seeks to heighten awareness of issues in veterinary epidemiology and public health education among veterinary educators through various forums, symposia, and workshops. The AVEPM Web site (http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/avepm/) includes a listing of educational software and Web sites supporting epidemiology and public health education.     

Emerging challenges in public health protection, food safety and security: veterinary needs in the USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service

Meeting the needs of public service practice is a responsibility of the veterinary profession. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has undergone significant change since 1996, when the final rule on Pathogen Reduction and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Systems and its regulations were published in response to food-borne illnesses and deaths due to E. coli 0157:H7 in undercooked hamburgers. As a result, the role of the veterinarian is changing from a focus on carcass inspection (reactive) to scientific-based systems analysis and enforcement (preventive). With a large pool of veterinarians eligible to retire, a critical shortage of field veterinarians is predicted. The purpose of this article is to raise educators' awareness of this need, of the competencies required, and of the challenges and opportunities for veterinarians in the new public health-focused FSIS. An invitation to collaborate with the agency is offered to help meet emerging workforce requirements in public health practice.