Eucalyptus growth and phosphorus nutritional efficiency as affected by soil compaction and phosphorus fertilization

ABSTRACT

Soil compaction interferes in soil nutrient transport and root growth. The aim of this work was to evaluate eucalypt growth and phosphorus (P) nutritional efficiency as affected by soil compaction and P rates. The treatments were composed of a 3 × 4 factorial scheme (soil bulk densities levels versus P fertilization rates) for two weathered tropical soils, a clayey Ferralsol (F_Clayey) and a sandy Ferralsol (F_Sandy). The soil bulk densities assessed were 0.90, 1.10 and 1.30 g cm^?3 for F_Clayey, and 1.35, 1.55 and 1.75 g cm^?3 for F_Sandy. The P rates were 0, 150, 300 and 600 mg kg^?1 for F_Clayey, and 0, 100, 200 and 400 mg kg^?1 for F_Sandy. Soil compaction reduced root growth, P content in the plant, P utilization efficiency and P recovery efficiency; and increased average root diameter. Phosphorus fertilization increased root length density, root surface area, dry matter, P content in the plant, P utilization efficiency and P uptake efficiency; and decreased P recovery efficiency. It was concluded that P fertilization is not effective to offset the deleterious effects of soil compaction on eucalypt growth and nutrition.

Abbreviations: F_Clayey: clayey Ferralsol; F_Sandy: sandy Ferralsol; R_Dens: root length density; R_Diam: root diameter; R_Surf: root surface area; R_DM: root dry matter; S_DM: shoot dry matter; WP_DM: whole-plant dry matter; R_P: root P content; S_P: shoot P content; WP_P: whole-plant P content; PU_tE: P utilization efficiency; PU_pE: P uptake efficiency; PRE: P recovery efficiency.     

Influence of nitrogen and weed management on the productivity of upland rice

Nitrogen and weeds are two important factors that influence the productivity of rainfed upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) in tropical Asia. A low recovery of applied fertilizer N in rainfed uplands is generally associated with high nitrate leaching losses and weed interferences. Field experiments were conducted during the wet seasons of 2002 and 2003 at the research farm of Central Rainfed Upland Rice Research Station, Hazaribag, Jharkhand, India, to determine the response of upland rice to nitrogen applied at 60 kg N ha^–1 as different forms of urea (single pre‐plant application of controlled‐release urea, single pre‐plant application of urea supergranules, and split application of prilled urea with or without basal N) against no N application under three weed‐control regimes (unweeded, pre‐emergence application of butachlor at 1.5 kg a.i. ha^–1 supplemented with one single hand weeding or two hand weedings). The response of rice to applied N varied greatly among the three weed‐control regimes. Across the different N treatments, the application of 60 kg N ha^–1 resulted in a grain‐yield increase above the unfertilized control of only 0.24 Mg ha^–1 in unweeded treatments, whereas yields increased by 1.07 Mg ha^–1 when butachlor application was supplemented with a single hand weeding and by 1.28 Mg ha^–1 with two hand weedings. Among the weed‐control measures, hand weeding twice produced highest grain yield in both years. The comparison of different forms of urea showed that a single pre‐plant application of controlled‐release urea resulted in average grain yields of 1.57 and 1.87 Mg ha^–1 compared to 1.32 and 1.30 Mg ha^–1 in the case of the recommended practice of split‐applied prilled urea in the years 2002 and 2003, respectively. The highest agronomic N use efficiency of 15–20 kg grain per kg N applied and the highest apparent N recovery of 39%–45% were attained with controlled‐release urea, suggesting that this N form is particularly beneficial for upland‐rice cultivation under variable rainfall conditions, provided weeds are controlled.     

减氮控磷稳钾施肥对水稻产量及养分积累的影响

氮、 磷用量偏大,钾肥用量不足不仅影响水稻的正常生长发育,而且导致养分利用率偏低。本文通过田间试验,研究减量施用氮、 磷肥,稳定钾肥投入对水稻产量、 养分积累量和肥料利用率的影响。试验设14个处理,每个处理重复2次。结果表明,氮钾、 磷钾、 氮磷钾配施处理的水稻秸秆生物量和籽粒产量均显著高于不施肥处理（P0.05）; 减氮控磷稳钾处理（N 225 kg/hm2、 P2O5 60 kg/hm2、 K2O 90 kg/hm2）与常规施肥处理相比（N 300 kg/hm2、 P2O5 150 kg/hm2、 K2O 60 kg/hm2）能显著增加水稻秸秆生物量（P0.05）,明显提高千粒重和籽粒产量; 试验还得出,减氮控磷稳钾处理分蘖期地上部氮、 钾含量和秸秆氮、 钾含量显著高于常规施肥处理（P0.05）; 收获期地上部氮、 钾的积累量和氮、 磷的表观利用率显著大于常规施肥处理（P0.05）。适当减少氮、 磷用量, 增加钾肥用量能改善氮、 钾营养状况,促进地上部干物质的积累,提高籽粒产量和氮、 磷表观利用率。N 196.2 kg/hm2、 P2O5 46.5 kg/hm2、 K2O 90 kg/hm2的配施方案具有实际推广应用价值。     

Bacterial inoculants for rice: effects on nutrient uptake and growth promotion

Beneficial soil bacteria are able to colonize plant root systems promoting plant growth and increasing crop yield and nutrient uptake through a variety of mechanisms. These bacteria can be an alternative to chemical fertilizers without productivity loss. The objectives of this study were to test bacterial inoculants for their ability to promote nutrient uptake and/or plant growth of rice plants subjected to different rates of chemical fertilizer, and to determine whether inoculants could be an alternative to nitrogen fertilizers. To test the interaction between putatively beneficial bacteria and rice plants, field experiments were conducted with two isolates: AC32 (Herbaspirillum sp.) and UR51 (Rhizobium sp.), and different nitrogen fertilization conditions (0%, 50%, and 100% of urea). Satisfactory results were obtained in relation to the nutrient uptake by plants inoculated with both isolates, principally when the recommended amount of nitrogen fertilizer was 50% reduced. These bacterial strains were unable to increase plant growth and grain yield when plants were subjected to the high level of fertilization. This study indicated that the tested inoculant formulations can provide essential nutrients to plants, especially when the levels of nitrogen fertilizers are reduced.     

Effect of genetic improvement of grain yield and nitrogen efficiency of mid‐season indica rice cultivars

Genetic improvement (GI) of mid‐season indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) in China has been experienced four typical plant types during the past several decades, i.e., early tall cultivars (ET), dwarf cultivars (DC), semi‐dwarf cultivars (SDC) and super rice cultivars (SR). However, little is known about the changes in fertilizer nitrogen (N) efficiency and their relationships with grain yield during the GI. With 12 representative mid‐season indica cultivars of the four types during GI, the effects of GI on grain yield and nitrogen efficiency were investigated. The results show that GI significantly increased grain yield and agronomic efficiency (AE) of N fertilizer but had no significant effect on recovery efficiency (RE) of N fertilizer. The low percentage of filled grains in modern SR limited its yield potential and the further increase in AE. GI decreased the N uptake from heading to maturity, leading to lower RE in modern rice cultivars. The rapid decline of the activities of root oxidation and nitrate reductase in SR during grain filling might be the physiological reasons for the lower percentage of filled grains and lower N uptake from heading to maturity.     

Effects of mycorrhizal inoculation of upland rice on uptake kinetics of arsenate and arsenite

We assessed the effect of mycorrhizal inoculation on short‐term uptake kinetics of arsenate and arsenite by excised roots of upland rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Zhonghan 221). A concentration of 0.01–0.05 mM arsenic (As) differentially affected the influx rates of both arsenate and arsenite into rice roots non‐inoculated or inoculated with Glomus mosseae and G. versiforme. While V_max for arsenate uptake by non‐mycorrhizal roots was 1.02 µmol g^?1 fresh weight h^?1, it was reduced by a factor of 2.4 for mycorrhizal roots (about 0.42 µmol g^?1 fresh weight h^?1) in the high‐affinity uptake system. However, at high concentrations of 0.5–2.5 mM As only G. versiforme was able to reduce As influx. The results show that mycorrhizal effects on As uptake of upland rice are both concentration and species‐specific.     

Nitric oxide reduces the stress effects of aluminum on the process of germination and early root growth of rice

The present study examined the action of nitric oxide (NO) on the germination process of rice seeds and early root growth under aluminum (Al) stress. Seeds and seedlings of two rice genotypes, with different levels of sensitivity to aluminum stress, were examined after treatment with Al and NO or only with Al. Further, the histochemical localization of Al and NO was performed on the root tissues. In both genotypes, NO was able to neutralize the inhibitory Al effects on germination. In the roots of seedlings, a reduction of Al toxicity as mediated by NO was indicated by an increased root elongation and a reduction of Al accumulation on the root surface in the Al hematoxylin complexation, irrespective of the genotype. The histolocalization of NO in roots using diaminofluorescein diacetate (DAF‐2DA) and confocal microscopy revealed endogenous Al‐induced levels of NO. It is concluded that NO can alleviate Al stress in the seedlings of the studied rice genotypes by improving germination and early root growth and is likely to play a role in a specific stress‐signaling pathway.     

Salicylic acid alleviates the toxicity effect of cadmium on germination,seedling growth,and amylase activity of rice

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy‐metal pollutant in the environment. Salicylic acid (SA) is an essential component of plant resistance to pathogens and also plays an important role in mediating plant responses to some abiotic stresses. In the present investigation, the potential effects of SA in alleviating Cd toxicity during seedling stage of rice were studied. Seeds of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Xiushui 11) were sterilized and divided into two groups. Half of the seeds were presoaked in 0.1 mM SA solution for 24 h, then both groups were allowed to germinate under various Cd concentrations for 7 d. Cadmium treatments caused a gradual decrease in vigor index, root length, α‐amylase activity, and the mitotic index of root tips. However, pretreatment with SA partially alleviated the negative effect of Cd on germination parameters and increased enzyme activity and mitotic index. Cadmium uptake by seedlings increased with increasing Cd concentration and followed Michaelis‐Menten kinetics. Salicylic acid pretreatment of seeds influenced the Cd level in the seedlings by decreasing V_max. The results suggest that SA plays a positive role in rice‐seed germination and early seedling growth by protecting it against Cd toxicity.     

水稻栽后植株氮素积累特征及其与根系生长的关系

以冈优22、Ⅱ优162和K优047为材料,通过大田试验研究了不同种植方式下水稻秧苗栽后根系和地上部氮素积累的动态特征及其与根重的关系。结果表明,栽后40.d内,地上部及根系氮素积累量呈指数模型增加。茎鞘、发根节和叶片氮含量与根重呈极显著正相关;根系氮含量与根重呈显著负相关;各器官氮积累动态与根重均呈极显著的正相关关系。全生育期植株氮积累量拟合Logistic曲线较好,决定系数在0.988以上,氮素积累量与根重呈显著的正相关关系,生育期越靠前,相关系数值越大。3种种植方式中,自移栽至孕穗期氮积累量以常耕插秧最高,常耕抛秧其次,免耕高留茬抛秧较低;孕穗后免耕高留茬抛秧各器官氮含量最高,氮积累量也逐渐超过常耕抛秧。3个杂交稻组合中,前期以冈优22的氮积累量最高,后期Ⅱ优162增加速率较快,K优047在整个生育期中均最低。     

缺钾对水稻不同品种光合和能量耗散的影响

试验测定了钾敏感型(二九丰)和钾钝感型(原丰早)两个水稻品种在缺钾处理41.d后其剑叶的生长、光合光响应曲线、叶绿素荧光参数光响应曲线和暗弛豫动力学曲线。结果表明,缺钾降低了水稻剑叶的光合作用,显著抑制了生长。但是缺钾条件下导致两个水稻品种净光合速率(Pn)下降的主导因子并不相同。在缺钾条件下,原丰早(YFZ)剑叶的Pn随气孔导度(Gs)和胞间CO2浓度(Ci)的下降而下降,但叶绿素荧光参数和叶绿素含量几乎没有变化,说明其Pn下降主要归于气孔的限制。缺钾处理41.d后,二九丰(EJF)在低光强下[500mol/(m2.s)],Pn随Gs和Ci下降,但在更强的光强下,Pn和Gs继续下降,而Ci开始上升,并在1200mol/(m2.s)处超越了对照,说明此时主导因子不单受气孔限制,还受非气孔因子限制;它的光饱和点从1200mol/(m2.s)下降到大约500mol/(m2.s);同时,其荧光参数Fv/Fm、ФPSII、qP和ETR随光强上升而迅速下降,而L(PFD)、E和PP迅速增加,NPQ在1200mol/(m2.s)光强下上升,但是在高光强下却迅速降低,甚至低于对照,而且Fm、Fv/Fm下降,Fo上升,均说明缺钾处理可能使光合机构受到了伤害,发生了光抑制。对非光化学猝灭的分析得到其中间组分qNm可能起了更大的能量耗散作用,部分激发能从PSⅡ转移到PSⅠ,降低了PSⅡ耗散能量的压力。以上结果表明,两品种对钾敏感性不同极可能也与缺钾条件下光保护能力的差异有关。     

Effect of exponential fertilization on growth and nutritional status in Buddhist pine (Podocarpus macrophyllus [Thunb.] D. Don) seedlings cultured in natural and prolonged photoperiods

Abstract

Slow growth rate limits the development of seedlings from the Podocarpaceae family. The extended photoperiod (EP) is well known to promote tree seedling growth, but it may also cause the possibility of nutrient dilution without a proper nutrient supply regime. Exponential fertilization (EF) has been proven to counter nutrient dilution within tree seedlings efficiently. However, no study has determined the response of Podocarpus seedlings to the interaction of EF and photoperiod. We fed 13-month old Buddhist pine (Podocarpus macrophyllus [Thunb.] D. Don) seedlings using EF applied at rates of 0 (control), 50 (E50), 100 (E100), and 150 (E150) mg nitrogen (N) seedling^?1 for 5 months, during which half of all seedlings were cultured in the natural photoperiod (NP) with the others exposed to EP. The longer photoperiod resulted in greater seedling height and biomass accumulation of Buddhist pine seedlings. Relative to NP, EP increased N content at the whole-plant level but decreased N concentration in the stem and root, which indicated the symptom of N dilution. However, both phosphorus (P) content and P concentration increased in response to the longer photoperiod. EF rates in the E100 and E150 treatments were evaluated to be the ‘sufficiency’ ones for both N and P in EP and NP, respectively. In conclusion, EP could stimulate the growth of Buddhist pine seedlings but caused N dilution within them at the same time, and photoperiod would change the nutritional response of these seedlings to EF.     

Tolerance of rice cultivars to iron toxicity

Iron toxicity is an important growth‐limiting factor for flooded rice production in various parts of the world, including Brazil. Data related to the reaction of rice cultivars to iron concentrations are limited, especially for large numbers of cultivars. Forty rice cultivars were grown in a greenhouse in nutrient solutions containing 0.09, 0.89, and 1.78 mM Fe (5, 50 and 100 ppm Fe). The effects of excess iron were measured on plant height, root length, and root and shoot dry weight. Root and shoot dry weight were found to be more sensitive to excess iron concentration. Based on dry matter yield, reduction of shoots at higher Fe concentrations compared to the optimum or control treatment, rice cultivars were classified as tolerant, moderately tolerant, moderately susceptible or susceptible.

The effect of Fe concentrations on concentrations and contents of other nutrient was also investigated. Higher concentration of Fe in the nutrient solution exerted an inhibiting effect on the concentrations and contents of almost all macro and micronutrients.     

Response of interspecific and sativa upland rices to Mali phosphate rock and soluble phosphate fertilizer

In West Africa, two-thirds of upland rice is grown on acidic phosphorus (P)-deficient soils. Phosphorus is one of the most limiting-nutrients affecting crop productivity. A three-year field experiment was conducted on a Ferralsol in Côte d'Ivoire to study the response of four interspecific rice cultivars and a sativa (control cultivar) to Tilemsi phosphate rock (PR) and soluble triple superphosphate (TSP) fertilizer. PR was applied at 0, 150, 300, and 450 kg ha^?1 P once in the first year and residual effects were measured in the following years. TSP (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg ha^?1 P) was applied yearly. More significant yield increasing (38%) was observed in the second year. Annual application of 50 kg P ha^?1 as TSP or a one-time application of 150 kg P ha^?1 as PR was the optimum rate for the production of all cultivars. Higher rates of P from TSP (100 and 150 kg P ha^?1) gave 2–3 times greater residual P in soil than the optimum rate, inducing no further response of rice. Two interspecific cultivars were identified as the most acid- and low P-tolerant cultivars for improving rice production in West Africa humid forest zone.     

施肥对切花玫瑰生长及养分吸收特性的影响

为了给切花玫瑰栽培提供科学的施肥依据,采用田间试验研究了云南玫瑰主要种植及热销品种"黑魔术"在营养生长期和切花期对营养元素N、P、K的养分吸收特点。研究结果表明,切花玫瑰株高的影响因子的主次顺序为钾>钙>磷>氮,施肥以N1P2K2Ca2时收率最大;切花玫瑰冠宽的影响因子的主次顺序为钙>钾>磷>氮,施肥以N2P3K2Ca3时收率最大;在苗期玫瑰施肥的最佳配比为N2P1K2Ca2[氮肥(尿素)450 kg/hm2,磷肥(普钙)131.4 kg/hm2,钾肥(硫酸钾)400.05 kg/hm2,钙肥(石灰粉)1 300.5 kg/hm2],在之后的整个切花延续期以N2P1K3Ca2(氮肥450 kg/hm2,磷肥131.4 kg/hm2,钾肥600 kg/hm2,钙肥1 300.5 kg/hm2)为最佳施肥配比。     

Impact of Elevated Ozone on Nutrient Uptake and Utilization of Chinese Hybrid Indica Rice (Oryza Sativa) Cultivars under Free-Air Ozone Enrichment

To assess the effects of ozone (O₃) on uptake and utilization of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium nutrients in rice for planning rational fertilization under projected O₃ elevation. Two hybrid indica cultivars were exposed to ambient and elevated O₃ (E-O₃) under a free-air O₃ enrichment system. E-O₃ differently affected the accumulation and distribution of biomass, and the absorption and distribution of nutrients between cultivars. These effects were related to rice cultivar and nutrient type. E-O₃ led to significantly decreased partial factor productivity and grain production efficiency (GPE) of nitrogen in both cultivars; however, the effects of E-O₃ on GPEs of phosphorus and potassium varied with cultivar. Responses of nutrients harvest indices between cultivars to E-O₃ were adverse. Differences between cultivars and elements should be considered when examining E-O₃ potentially affecting the nutrient dynamics for the purpose of reducing the amount of fertilizer applied in paddy systems to decrease potential environmental pollution.     

Comparison of adaptability to flash flood between rice cultivars differing in flash flood tolerance

The mechanism of flash flood tolerance was investigated by using a flash flood-intolerant rice cultivar (Oryza sativa), IR42 and a tolerant one, FR13A. The photosynthetic rate of the rice seedlings from both types of cultivars decreased during submergence, whereas the photosynthetic rate of FR13A remained higher than that of IR42. The decrease in photosynthesis in IR42 was partially due to a higher inhibition of the activities of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, than in FR13A. After submergence receded (hereafter referred as “desubmergence”), both types of submerged rice cultivars experienced oxidative damage. However the oxidation of the lipids and proteins in FR13A was maintained at a lower level than that in IR42 after desubmergence. On the other hand, the superoxide dismutase activity in FR13A increased more than that in IR42 after desubmergence. Moreover, the content of total ascorbate (reduced and oxidized ascorbates), a main antioxidant increased in FR13A, while in IR42 the content remained low after desubmergence. It is assumed that the photosynthetic activity during submergence may be related to flash flood tolerance. Moreover, flash flood tolerance requires a rapid stimulation of antioxidant systems after desubmergence.     

根区氮钾水平对杂交和常规水稻品种光合作用及根系生长的影响

Root box experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of N and NK levels in the root zone on shoot photosynthesis and root growth of hybrid an cultivar of rice (Oryza sativa L.) on two paddy soils (clayey and silty).The results showed that dry matter yields in the hybrid and the cultivar were considerably increased by NK supply,bu the effect was greater for the hybrid.Supply of NK in the root zone significantly increased photosynthetic rate of the lower position leaf and the active green leaf area per plant,in which the effects were much more obvious in the hybrid rice than in the cultivar.High NK supply in the root zone stimulated the root growth,and decreased pH and increased the oxidation zone in the rhizosphere in both entries,but to a greater extent in the hybrid .The results indicated that higher NK levels were needed to maintain higher root activity and shoot photosynthetic capacity in rice,particularly in hybrid rice.     

Potassium requirement in relation to grain yield and genotypic improvement of irrigated lowland rice in China

The yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) has increased substantially with the development of new cultivars, but the role of potassium (K) requirement for the increase in grain yield and the genotypic advance is still unclear. In order to investigate this relationship a database of 1199 on‐farm measurements (harvest index 0.4) comprising > 400 modern rice cultivars was collected during 2005–2010 across major irrigated lowland rice–production regions of China. This was used to evaluate the relationships among K requirement, grain yield, and genetic improvement. Across all the sites and seasons, mean reciprocal internal efficiency of K (RIE‐K, kg K [t grain produced]^–1) was 19.8 kg K (t grain)^–1 and rice yield averaged 8.7 t ha^–1. Considering four levels of grain yield (< 7.5, 7.5–9, 9–10.5, and > 10.5 t ha^–1), the respective RIEs were 18.7, 19.4, 20.5, and 21.7 kg K (t grain)^–1. The gradual increase in the RIE‐K with yield was attributed mainly to the increase in straw and grain K concentration and the decrease in the K harvest index. The RIE‐K values for ordinary inbred, ordinary hybrid, and “super rice” were 18.5, 20.1, and 19.9 kg K (t grain)^–1, respectively. Examining the historical development of rice cultivars, the RIE‐K decreased from 40.9 (Nanjing1, early tall, inbred) in the 1950s to 19.8 (IR24, semi‐dwarf, ordinary inbred) in the 1970s, and then increased to 20.9 (Shanyou63, modern ordinary hybrid) in the 1980s and 20.6 kg K (t grain)^–1 (II‐you084, “super” rice) in the 2000s. This variation in RIE‐K among grain‐yield levels and cultivars highlights the importance of information on rice K requirement in calculating K balance and optimal K‐fertilizer rate for rice production.     

Fallow residue management effects on upland rice in three agroecological zones of West Africa

Improving fallow quality in upland rice-fallow rotations in West Africa through the site-specific use of leguminous cover crops has been shown to sustain the productivity of such systems. We studied the effects of a range of residue management practices (removal, burning, mulching and incorporation) on fallow biomass and N accumulation, on weed biomass and yield response of upland rice and on changes in soil physical and chemical characteristics in 2-year field trials conducted in three agroecological zones of Côte d'Ivoire. Across fallow management treatments and agroecological zones, rice yields were on average 20–30% higher in legume than in natural fallow plots. Weed biomass was highest in the savanna zone and lowest in the bimodal forest and tended to be less following a legume fallow. Regardless of the type of fallow vegetation and agroecological zone, biomass removal resulted in the lowest rice yields that varied from 0.5?t ha^–1 in the derived savanna zone to 1.5?t ha^–1 in the Guinea savanna zone. Burning of the fallow vegetation significantly increased yield over residue removal in the derived savanna (0.27?t ha^–1, P<0.05) and bimodal forest zones (0.27?t ha^–1, P<0.01), but not in the Guinea savanna. In both savanna environments, residue incorporation was superior to the farmers' practice of residue removal and rice yield increases were related to amounts of fallow N returned to the soil (r²=0.803, P<0.01). In the forest zone, the farmers' practice of residue burning produced the highest yield (1.43?t ha-1 in the case of legumes) and resulted in the lowest weed biomass (0.02?t ha^–1). Regardless of the site, improving the quality of the fallow or of its management had no significant effects on either soil physical or soil chemical characteristics after two fallow cycles. We conclude that incorporation of legume residues is a desirable practice for rice-based fallow rotation systems in savanna environments. No promising residue management alternatives to slash-and-burn were apparent for the forest zone. Determining the possible effects on soil productivity will require longer-term experiments.