The mode of operation of a regulating reservoir for effective use of river flow

In the absence of a reservoir on the downstream side, a river flow that increases temporarily by rainfall cannot be stored and discharged apart from requirements in a command area. This unused water (excess water) occurs to some extent even in a drought year and making effective use of this supply is considered as one of the countermeasures for water shortage. Setting up a regulating reservoir on the upstream side of head works is regarded as one of the methods for making effective use of excess water. The inflow to the river and water delivery loss occurred from rainfall are stored in the regulating reservoir and supplied to the command area on the downstream side as agricultural water. An operational method for the regulating reservoir to effectively utilize the excess water was examined for a canal system by simulation. In an investigated area, there was excess water even in drought years, and making use of it through the regulating reservoir whose capacity is smaller compared to that of a dam can become one of the countermeasures for the drought period. The simulation in this study could estimate quantitatively the effect of the regulating reservoir to make the excess water effective.     

Transferring water from irrigation to higher valued uses: a case study of the Zhanghe irrigation system in China

The Zhanghe irrigation system (ZIS) is located in the Yangtze River Basin approximately 200 km west of Wuhan in Hubei Province. The reservoir was designed for multiple uses—irrigation, flood control, domestic water supply, industrial use, aquaculture, and hydropower. Over a period of more than 30 years a steadily increasing amount of water has been transferred from irrigation to other uses. Activities on the part of government, irrigation system managers, and farmers made this transfer possible with only modest decline in rice production. Most important factor was the steady increase in rice yields. The water pricing system provided an incentive for ZIS to reduce irrigation releases. With the steady decline in releases, farmers were forced to find ways to save water. Farmers improved existing ponds and built new ones to store water (improved infrastructure). Access to pond water on demand facilitated the adoption of alternate wetting and drying (technology) particularly in dry years. The establishment of volumetric pricing (price policy) and water user associations (institutions) may also have provided incentives for adoption of AWD, but more research is needed to establish their impact. These activities taken together can be seen as potentially complementary measures. Farmers received no direct compensation for the transfer of water, but recently farm taxes have been reduced or altogether abolished. Further reduction in water releases from the ZIS reservoir could adversely affect rice production in normal or dry years.     

Study on agricultural benefits by increasing capacity of water ponds: a case study at Taoyuan paddy fields

In Taiwan, agricultural water is frequently reduced or suspended for reallocation of water resources during drought. To cope with such a situation, the irrigation district of the Shihmen Reservoir in the northern Taiwan fully utilizes the functions of water ponds to regulate water resources, so that industrial and domestic water demands can be met. Constructing new water ponds is indeed able to increase water storage for irrigation. However, when it is compared with the method of dredging or excavating the existing water ponds, constructing new water ponds is not easily accepted by the public because of environmental protection and land acquisition. Dredging water ponds is adopted to obtain a larger storage capacity, so that more flexibility may be acquired in water allocation during drought. Furthermore, it is more practical from engineering point of view. This study presents a formulation of the pond-dredging problem for an irrigation system. The formulation is implemented as optimization programs and applied to the area irrigated by the eighth lateral of the Taoyuan Irrigation Association. The irrigation area is a paddy field of 2,283.8 hectares and consists of 32 water ponds storage capacity of which is analyzed as dredging is conducted. Two models are presented; the first minimizes the water extracted from the Reservoir in a cropping season; while the second maximizes agricultural financial net benefits. Various allowable dredging ratios are used in the two models for different case studies. The first model shows that the water supplied by the Reservoir decreases as the ratio increases, and it reaches the minimum (2,520.3?×?10⁴m³) when the ratio is 0.5. The second model displays that the maximum agricultural financial net benefit increases as the ratio increases and it reaches the highest value (NT$ 6,996?×?10⁴) when the ratio is 0.5, a result similar to that of the first model. However, the dredging priorities of 32 water ponds for the two models are different because of the optimization objectives. The simulation results provide references to the performance improvement of water ponds. With such improvement, water ponds can possess an optimal capacity, and an optimal regional water allocation during drought can be achieved.     

A combined technique of floodplain storage and reservoir irrigation for paddy rice cultivation

This paper introduces an irrigation system developed in the floodplain of a lake and studies the water management technique of the irrigation system by estimating the total water balance of the whole system. The system is characterized by a reservoir combined with a dike system in the floodplain of the Tonle Sap Great Lake and an irrigation system. Two main models are used for calculating the total water balance. The first model is the water balance of the reservoir. The inputs to the model are water level of the reservoir, precipitation, lake evaporation, infiltration, and area–volume curve of the reservoir. The outputs are inflow and outflow of the reservoir. The supply from the reservoir to paddy fields is computed from the outflow. The second model is the water balance of paddy fields, based on which the water requirement in paddy fields is derived. The reference evapotranspiration needed to calculate the water requirement is simulated for monthly time series using the FAO Penman–Monteith model. Since there is no drainage network in the irrigation system, surface drainage and runoff are not included in the calculation of the water balance, and seepage is considered negligible in the flat floodplain area. The evapotranspiration, rice variety, soil type and irrigated area are used to simulate water consumption in paddy fields. Finally, the two models are connected to produce the total water balance from the reservoir to paddy fields. The total outflow from the reservoir is estimated and the total water consumption for dry season cultivation is also determined. Finally, the efficiency of the whole system is examined.     

分根区灌溉和氮肥处理对星油藤幼苗的影响

探讨分根区灌溉和氮肥对盆栽星油藤幼苗生长的影响。试验设置3个因素，灌水量、灌溉方式和氮肥，共7个处理，测量了幼苗生长、光合和水分利用效率等指标。结果表明：与充分灌溉相比，分根区灌溉的处理，生物量降低5％，节水75％，水分利用率高出60％，表现出极大的节水效益。重度干旱条件下，施氮肥的处理，根冠比增加达30％，但分根区灌溉处理叶面积指数下降38％，光合速率下降9％，生物量下降18％，分根区灌溉在严重干旱条件不适宜施氮肥。总之，在适度干旱条件下，分根区灌溉降低蒸腾，提高水分利用率，是一种有效的节水灌溉技术。     

Future potential impacts of climate change on agricultural watershed hydrology and the adaptation strategy of paddy rice irrigation reservoir by release control

This study is to assess the climate change impact on the temporal variation of paddy rice irrigation reservoir water level from the future evaluated watershed inflow, and to suggest an adaptation method of the future reservoir water level management for stable water supply of paddy irrigation demands. A 366.5 km² watershed including two irrigation reservoirs located in the upper middle part of South Korea was adopted. For the future evaluation, the SLURP model was set up using 9 years daily reservoir water level and streamflow records at the watershed outlet. The average Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiencies for calibration and validation were 0.69 and 0.65, respectively. For the future climate condition, the NIES MIROC3.2 hires data by SRES A1B and B1 scenarios of the IPCC was adopted. The future data were downscaled by applying Change Factor statistical method through bias-correction using 30 years past weather data. The results of future impact showed that the future reservoir storages of autumn and winter season after completion of irrigation period decreased for 2080s A1B scenario. Considering the future decrease of summer and autumn reservoir inflows, the reservoir operation has to be more conservative for preparing the water supply of paddy irrigation, and there should be a more prudent decision making for the reservoir release by storm events. Therefore, as the future adaptation strategy, the control of reservoir release by decreasing in August and September could secure the reservoir water level in autumn and winter season by reaching the water level to almost 100% like the present reservoir water level management.     

AM真菌对石漠化地区桑树的促生及养分调控作用

为确定丛枝菌根（arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM）真菌对石漠化地区植物及土壤养分化学计量特征的影响,本研究以石漠化地区经济树种桑树为研究对象,通过模拟石漠化地区季节性干旱,研究水分供应发生变化时,AM真菌对桑树幼苗和土壤中养分调控作用。为模拟石漠化地区季节性干旱,试验设置正常供水和自然干旱2个时期,每个时期均设未接种对照（-M）、接种摩西斗管囊霉（Fm）和接种根内根孢囊霉（Ri）3个处理。桑树收获后,测定植物、土壤中的C、N、P、K含量。结果表明：在正常供水、自然干旱2个时期,接菌处理对桑树幼苗的促生效果显著,干旱胁迫发生之后,Ri菌种与桑树的亲和性、促生效果均强于Fm菌种。接菌处理对桑树幼苗N、P营养改善作用尤为明显,无论水分供应条件如何,接菌处理都显著增加桑苗各部分N、P含量。对比土壤养分含量发现,接菌处理增加了土壤有效P含量,降低了土壤中C含量,正常供水条件下,接种Fm、Ri分别使得土壤C含量下降了7.00%和8.55%。对比土壤养分计量比发现,正常供水条件下,接菌处理显著提高了土壤中的碳磷比（C/P）和氮磷比（N/P）;干旱胁迫条件下,接菌处理显著增加氮磷比（N/P）。综上所述,石漠地区发生季节性干旱时,AM真菌可以影响桑树对C、N、P养分吸收和分配,依据水分供应的变化和对养分资源需求的不同,调控土壤、植物体中C、N、P配比。     

A decision support system for agricultural drought management using risk assessment

Since predicted changes in climate will modify temperature and rainfall patterns, there are concerns about the potential impacts of these changes on agricultural drought and agricultural water resources management. An agricultural drought is influenced by several factors such as rainfall, soil characteristics, crops, and reservoir water supply and may be defined as the imbalance of water circulation in paddy and water environments. In particular, soil moisture and water supply for reservoir demand are the most direct and important indicators of agricultural drought events. In the past, conventional drought management approaches based on climatic and meteorological observations have been the primary tools used for measuring drought severity. Because of the spatial and temporal variability and multiple impacts of drought, it is necessary to improve tools to determine the onset, severity, spatial extent, and end of the drought conditions. Improved and available data for mapping and monitoring of this phenomenon are also needed. Effective and efficient drought management can be achieved through drought monitoring based on the ability to assess current conditions and provide improved tools to adapt and mitigate the impacts of future changes. In this article, a methodology is developed to support the risk-based decision-making process involved in agricultural drought management using the following four strategies: drought assessment and monitoring, drought forecast and outlook, drought countermeasures, and drought records management.     

需水特性不同的两个冬小麦品种 叶片光合特性的比较研究

本文在田间种植条件下,比较了需水特性不同的两个冬小麦品种河农859和河农326以叶片光合速率为主的光合性能。结果表明,叶片的光合速率一般以河农859较高,但在刚灌水后的短时间内却以河农326的光合速率较高;河农859叶片光合速率受灌水的影响较小,在生育期间的变化较平稳,而河农326灌水与不灌水的处理间光合速率差别较大,且光合速率波动明显。结合产量性状分析,开花后灌一次水和不灌水的限水条件下以河农859产量较高,表明其耐旱性较强,而开花后保证充分供水的湿润处理则以河农326产量较高,且增产幅度较大。因此,河农859适宜于在供水有限的条件下发挥其耐旱特性,争取较高产量;而河农326可用于在供水充足条件下发挥高产潜力。     

基于相对生长率的大豆旱灾系统敏感性定量评估研究

针对大豆旱灾系统敏感性定量评估的复杂性与重要性,依托新马桥农水综合试验站开展大豆防雨棚盆栽受旱胁迫专项试验,分析了大豆不同生育期受旱胁迫对根(冠)干物质积累及根冠比的影响,运用作物生长解析法构建了基于相对生长率(RGR)的大豆旱灾系统敏感性函数,实现对大豆旱灾系统敏感性的定量评估。结果表明:大豆苗期受旱胁迫会出现相对生长率较大幅度的降低,但随着受旱胁迫度的增大对大豆生长和干物质积累的抑制作用增强不明显,且受旱胁迫会激发自身适应受旱胁迫的机制而可能对后期生长发育有利,宜根据时机控制该生育期水分供给,保证苗全即可;大豆分枝期旱灾系统敏感性较强,但该生育期内轻度受旱胁迫对大豆生长发育影响不明显,宜保证该生育期水分供给高于轻度受旱胁迫(土壤含水率田间持水含水率的55%),以保障大豆株壮、枝多;大豆花荚期是水分和养分需求最大的时期,该生育期旱灾系统较敏感,特别是重度受旱胁迫时系统敏感性最大,宜充分保证该生育期的水分供给(土壤含水率田间持水含水率的75%),以保障大豆花多、荚多、粒多;大豆鼓粒成熟期由于营养生长基本停止、干物质积累几乎停滞,导致基于总干物质相对生长率旱灾系统敏感性最小,但该期是产量形成的关键期,宜保证该生育期尤其鼓粒期的水分供给(土壤含水率田间持水含水率的75%),以保障完熟期粒多、粒重。     

Delivery management water requirement for irrigation ditches associated with large-sized paddy plots in Korea

Delivery management water requirement (DMWR) is the use of bypass water in paddy field irrigation to help maintain desired water levels in irrigation canals and to distribute water to paddy plots in a uniform manner. Diverted irrigation water (DIW), DMWR, and the DMWR/DIW ratio were investigated for concrete lined irrigation ditches with large-sized paddy plots (100 m×100 m) during irrigation periods (May to mid-September). DIW and DMWR were measured at 5- to 10-day intervals at the inlets and outlets of irrigation ditches on stable water supply days. The mean DMWR/DIW ratios in irrigation ditches L₁ and L₂ over 3 years were 36 and 34%, respectively. The mean DMWR/DIW ratios displayed month-to-month and year-to-year variation. The monthly mean DMWR/DIW ratios were highest (55 and 71%) in June and lowest (<20%) in August and September. The annual mean DMWR/DIW ratios during a dry year markedly decreased to 11%, compared with 42% in other years. The decrease was due to the small DIW and farmers water management to maximize capture of limited irrigation water during the drought. The DMWRs in May and June were significantly (p<0.01) correlated with the DIWs, indicating that high DMWR in May and June are attributed to excessive DIW.     

两种土壤贮水条件下灌水对豫麦50籽粒品质性状及产量的调控效应

为了给弱筋小麦田间水分管理提供合理依据,以弱筋小麦品种豫麦50为材料．在池栽防雨务件下研究了两种土壤贮水条件下灌水对小麦籽粒品质性状及产量的影响。结果表明。在底墒充足条件下,豫麦50籽粒主要品质性状优于底墒不足的品质性状。灌水对底墒不足条件下品质性状的影响大于对底墒充足务件下的影响,且各个品质性状受影响的程度不同。在底墒充足条件下以全生育期灌4水的弱筋小麦品质最优,抽穗期灌1水次之;而在底墒不足时全生育期灌4水和全生育期不灌水多数品质性状较优。底墒充足条件下的小麦籽粒产量、耗水量均高于底墒不足的产量和耗水量,而水分利用效率则较低;两种土壤贮水条件下的耗水量均随灌水次数增加而增加,而水分利用效率则降低;产量随灌水次数增加而增加,但灌水过量反而降低。据此提出了麦播前贮好底墒的重要性,以及不同底墒每件下小麦高产优质高效栽培的水分运筹建议。     

Potato Cultivar Response to Seasonal Drought Patterns

The ability to minimize potato yield and quality losses due to drought can be greatly improved by understanding the relative responses of different cultivars to seasonal variations in water supply. To address this need, we initiated a 2 year field experiment to determine the responses of the six potato cultivars to different seasonal drought patterns, including 1) full season irrigation at 100 % ET, 2) irrigation at 100 % ET terminated during late bulking , 3) full season irrigation at 70 % ET , 4) irrigation at 70 % ET terminated during late bulking , and 5) a gradual reduction in irrigation from 100 % ET during tuber initiation through early bulking, to 70 % ET during mid-bulking, and 50 % ET through late bulking. GemStar Russet and Ranger Russet, two medium-late maturing cultivars, generally produced the highest yields across the range of drought treatments, but both were fairly sensitive to changes in drought severity. Alturas, a late maturing cultivar, produced relatively high yields with full irrigation, but exhibited the greatest sensitivity to increasing drought severity, particularly when severe late-season water deficits were imposed. Yields for the early maturing cultivar Russet Norkotah were relatively low overall, but it was the least sensitive to changes in drought severity, particularly when late season drought was imposed. Russet Burbank produced comparatively high total yields across the range of drought treatments, but U.S. No. 1 yields were substantially reduced by each seasonal drought pattern. However, it was less sensitive to changes in drought severity than GemStar Russet, Ranger Russet and Alturas. Total and U.S. No. 1 yields for Summit Russet were low for each drought treatment and it exhibited intermediate sensitivity to changes in drought severity. GemStar Russet had the highest water use efficiency based on U.S. No. 1 yield.     

水氮互作对百农207种子发芽特性及贮藏物质转运的影响

为了研究不同水氮处理下收获的百农207种子发芽特性和贮藏物质转运的差异,以百农207为材料,结合当地冬小麦灌溉施肥制度设置水氮两因素裂区试验,水分为主区,氮素为副区,设置W0(返青后不灌水)、W1(返青后灌拔节水)、W2(返青后灌拔节水和开花水)、W3(返青后灌拔节水、开花水和灌浆水)4个灌溉水平以及N0(不施氮)、N1(120kg·hm-2)、N2(180kg·hm-2)、N3(240kg·hm-2)4个施氮水平。在百农207收获后进行标准发芽实验,测定种子的发芽指数、活力指数、生长特性和贮藏物质转运等相关指标。结果表明,灌水和施氮对收获后的百农207种子活力指数、幼苗根冠比、贮藏物质转运率和转化效率的影响呈正向耦合效应。水分是决定收获后小麦种子活力指数、种子贮藏物质转运率和转化效率的主要因子;氮素是决定收获后种子发芽阶段根冠比的主要因子。高水肥处理(N3W3)的种子发芽指数和活力指数最高,水分和养分胁迫(N0W0和N1W0)下发芽阶段的根芽长比值较高。在一定施氮量范围内,增加灌水并不能促进收获种子在发芽阶段幼苗根冠比的增加。在W2和W3水平下,不同施氮处理的百农207种子贮藏物质转运率和贮藏物质转化效率均高于60%。种子发芽阶段幼苗生长相对最优的水氮处理为N2W2。这说明一定水分和氮素营养供应范围内降低氮肥用量,不会降低收获后百农207种子的贮藏物质转运率和转运效率,符合当前的减肥增效原则。     

春玉米不同灌溉定额条件下抗旱指数的运用研究

以18个玉米品种为材料,研究了不同灌溉定额条件下不同品种玉米产量特性和抗旱指数的关系。结果表明:不同水分和不同品种间的产量差异均极显著。不同灌溉定额条件下抗旱指数均和无灌溉条件下产量显著相关。中玉9号抗旱指数最高。干旱条件下有限灌溉可使玉米产量有较大幅度增长。抗旱指数较高的沈玉18、屯玉38在中灌溉条件下产量已达到或接近试验条件下的高点。     

Effective use of a reservoir for paddy irrigation in tropical monsoon Asia—a case study of the Ngamoeyeik Project,Lower Myanmar

Irrigation projects with reservoirs have contributed to the stabilization of traditional rainfed rice and to the introduction of double-rice in monsoon Asia. This type of irrigation also has the capability of shifting the traditional rice-cropping season. This paper discusses the influences of the shifted cropping season on water resources and the effective use of the reservoir in the Ngamoeyeik Irrigation Project Area in Lower Myanmar. Synthesized streamflow data were applied to simulate water storage in the reservoir. The main results are as follows: (1) shifting the cropping season to avoid inundation problems can increase water availability, (2) the amount of evaporation loss in the reservoir water budget can be as high as 16%, which decreases water efficiency in the reservoir operation during the dry season, (3) a shifted cropping season is preferable under the special hydrological conditions found in Lower Myanmar.     

No-Tillage Enhanced the Dependence on Surface Irrigation Water in Wheat and Soybean

Abstract

No-tillage often affects crop root development due to the higher mechanical impedance to root elongation, resulting in yield reduction under an unfavorable rainfall pattern, such as drought. In this study, we analyzed the changes in water source of wheat and soybean under drought stress in a continuous no-tillage field. Deuterium-labeled irrigation water was applied at different growth stages of crops to analyze their water uptake pattern. Mechanical impedance of the surface soil was 3.5 and 4.4 times higher in the no-tillage than in the conventional tillage under wet and drought conditions, respectively. Root length density and root branching index (the length of lateral roots per unit axile root length) of soybean in the surface soil layer were higher in the no-tillage field. This indicates that the increased branching by the higher mechanical impedance of undisturbed surface soil causes roots to accumulate in the surface soil layer. The deuterium concentration in the xylem sap of both crops was significantly higher in the no-tillage than in the tillage under a drought condition. This indicates that the crops in the no-tillage field depend highly on the newly supplied easily accessible water (irrigation water and/or rainfall) as compared with those in the conventional tillage field under a limited water supply. In conclusion, enhanced surface root growth in the no-tillage condition would result in higher dependence on surface supplied irrigation water than in the conventional tillage under drought.     

Growth, yield and water productivity of zero till wheat as affected by rice straw mulch and irrigation schedule

Intensive cultivation of rice and wheat in north-west India has resulted in air pollution from rice straw burning, soil degradation and declining groundwater resources. The retention of rice residues as a surface mulch could be beneficial for moisture conservation and yield, and for hence water productivity, in addition to reducing air pollution and loss of soil organic matter. Two field experiments were conducted in Punjab, India, to study the effects of rice straw mulch and irrigation scheduling on wheat growth, yield, water use and water productivity during 2006-2008. Mulching increased soil water content and this led to significant improvement in crop growth and yield determining attributes where water was limiting, but this only resulted in significant grain yield increase in two instances. There was no effect of irrigation treatment in the first year because of well-distributed rains. In the second year, yield decreased with decrease and delay in the number of irrigations between crown root initiation and grain filling. With soil matric potential (SMP)-based irrigation scheduling, the irrigation amount was reduced by 75 mm each year with mulch in comparison with no mulch, while maintaining grain yield. Total crop water use (ET) was not significantly affected by mulch in either year, but was significantly affected by irrigation treatment in the second year. Mulch had a positive or neutral effect on grain water productivity with respect to ET (WP_ET) and irrigation (WP_I). Maximum WP_I occurred in the treatment which received the least irrigation, but this was also the lowest yielding treatment. The current irrigation scheduling guidelines based on cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) resulted in sub-optimal irrigation (loss of yield) in one of the two years, and higher irrigation input and lower WP_I of the mulched treatment in comparison with SMP-based irrigation scheduling. The results from this and other studies suggest that farmers in Punjab greatly over-irrigate wheat. Further field and modelling studies are needed to extrapolate the findings to a wider range of seasonal and site conditions, and to develop simple tools and guidelines to assist farmers to better schedule irrigation to wheat.     

Millet forage yield and silage quality as affected by water and nitrogen application at different sowing dates

This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of two irrigation regimes (control and water stress) and two nitrogen (N) levels (0 and 112.5 kg/ha) on forage yield and silage quality in millet. Bastan (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv) and Pishahang (Panicum miliaceum) were sown at two different dates during 2015 and 2016. Both cultivars exhibited reduced dry-matter (DM) yields (45% and 51% in Bastan and Pishahang respectively) due to drought stress. Proline and phenolic contents increased as a result of drought and were significantly and negatively correlated with DM yield and digestibility. Moreover, Pishahang had a reduced acid detergent fibre (ADF) content but improved leaf/stem ratio, digestible dry matter (DDM), relative feed value (RFV), net energy for lactation (NE_L), digestibility and silage quality as a result of drought stress, while no significant effects on these traits were observed in Bastan. Silage quality was greatly cultivar-dependent. Both cultivars had higher levels of DDM, RFV and NE_L at early sowing dates. Nitrogen supply had greater positive effects on increasing ash, crude protein (CP) content and DM yield under normal irrigation than under water-stress conditions. In summary, given the importance of the energy received per unit of forage from an animal husbandry viewpoint and the significance of DM yield per unit area from an agricultural viewpoint, the obtained results might help farmers in choosing not only the best sowing dates but also proper irrigation and N management practices to achieve their quantitative and qualitative objectives in forage production.     

吉林半干旱区不同灌溉方式对土壤水分变化及玉米产量的影响

通过对常规垄灌溉、固定隔沟灌溉和交替隔沟灌溉的试验对比,交替隔沟灌溉水量仅为常规沟灌的1/2,有一半左右的地表面处于相对干燥状态,水分渗入率较大,提高了土壤对灌溉水和自然降雨的储存与利用,有利于对有限的水资源进行合理分配和充分利用。运用交替隔沟灌溉技术能提高作物对垄两侧土壤中养料、水分等的利用效率,作物根系进行干湿交替锻炼后,刺激根系生长,提高根系活力,一定程度增强植株抵御干旱的能力,更利于作物健康生长,交替隔沟灌溉是具有较强实用性的大田节水灌溉方法。