Traditional agroforestry,parcel management,and social forestry development in a pioneer agricultural community: the case of Jala-jala,Rizal, Philippines

This paper overviews a variety of traditional agroforestry systems found in a small community of Filipino migrant farmers. Background information provides context, and then case studies of seven farmers are offered to illustrate the functions which their agroforestries fulfill in a situation of parcellization of farm-holdings into both level and sloping fields. The implications of the brief portraits presented for further research and development and for the acceptability of a social forestry program now going on in the community are suggested.     

Trees outside forests: agro-, community,and urban forestry

Planted forests are often considered to consist of tree plantings at a scale large enough to satisfy such objectives as commercial production of timber and fiber, protection of watersheds, and preservation of natural habitats. However, trees are planted also at greatly reduced scales in agroforestry systems or as community woodlots to provide a mixture of products and services to resident households, local communities, and regional cultures.Agroforestry systems represent a major form of small-scale tree planting, where trees are grown in purposeful combinations with agricultural crops and/or livestock in order to take advantage of tree-crop interactions, and thereby enhance crop production, diversify farm output, stabilize or improve soils, or ameliorate harsh environmental conditions. Some important examples of these systems in tropical countries include homegardens, alley cropping, improved fallows, intercropped trees for shade and fodder production, and trees planted in hedgerows and along fence lines. Throughout the tropics, there is a large variety of indigenous practices and species mixtures that represent adaptations of these systems to meet localized needs and opportunities. Research and development programs have supported the expansion and refinement of many of these systems during the last 20 years, but substantial constraints on tree planting still exist in the form of land-tenure practices, population pressures that relegate agroforestry practices to degraded lands, subsistence needs that prevent extended periods of tree growth, and insufficient technical information or technology dissemination.Agroforestry systems in temperate, industrialized countries include combinations of trees, pasture, and livestock; fruit or nut trees interplanted with vegetable or grain crops; windbreaks and shelterbelts; multispecies riparian buffer strips; and forest farming systems for specialty crops. Compared to the tropics, however, temperate-zone systems tend to focus on one or two high-value crops, often involve some level of mechanization, and frequently represent an opportunistic approach to improving the economic profitability of farms rather than meeting subsistence needs. In both tropical and temperate regions, agroforestry systems and community woodlots will be an important component of new sustainable agriculture and environmental protection programs.Although species diversity is an essential feature of all agroforestry systems, community forests generally involve planting only a few species in small woodlots near farms, around villages, along roads, and as riparian buffers. Provincial or state governments and the local populace are often involved in landownership and plantation establishment. Major objectives of these forests are production of fuelwood for local consumption and of other tree products for market; soil stabilization, reclamation, or improvement; and protection of water quality. As with many other planted forests, the number of species widely used in community forests has been relatively small, with the genera Eucalyptus, Pinus, and Acacia providing the bulk of the species. Major issues with these planted forests focus on rights for use of the products, tending responsibilities once trees are established, protection until trees are large enough for their designated use, increasing interest in using native species, and greater community involvement in planning and management.Trees planted along streets and waterways, or as woodlots in parks and other public places, represent a major group of planted forests in many urban and periurban landscapes. In addition to providing many of the same environmental services that agroforests and community forests do, these urban plantings have unique aesthetic and recreational value. For much of the world's ever-increasing urban population, these may be the only tangible reference points for understanding planted forests.These relatively little-recognized forms of planted forests -- planted trees, to be more appropriate -- are now receiving much greater attention. There are, however, some serious technical and sociopolitico-institutional constraints to their development as more widely adopted systems in both tropical and temperate regions.     

Agroforestry vs. forestry for the rural poor: a socio-economic evaluation

The paper evaluates Forest Farming for the Rural Poor (FFRP) component of social forestry in the Indian State of Orissa within the framework of the stated socio-economic policy objectives. Both the distributional equity and efficiency aspects have been accounted for in the analysis. Based on two criteria (net present value and land expectation value) the socio-economic profitability and optimum rotations have been determined for dense plantations in three site qualities and compared with the results for agroforestry. The net socio-economic benefits for agroforestry are shown to be larger than for dense plantations in SQI. The reverse was found for SQII, the net socio-economic benefits are comparatively less in agroforestry than in the dense plantations. The net socio-economic benefits in SQIII are negative for both the agroforestry and dense plantations. It is found that for the FFRP policy to be socially profitable in SQIII, the investment funds should be acquired by diverting consumption-oriented funds from rural development programmes.     

Do socio-psychological factors matter in agroforestry planning? Lessons from smallholder traditional agroforestry systems

Most of the well planned rural development forestry programs of the 1970s, and agroforestry in particular, were either not adopted by the intended beneficiaries or failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the rural people, particularly in the developing countries. The reasons for non-adoption in some cases appear to be technical, bio-physical, social and economic (termed as rational reasons by the planners), but in other situations the reasons are not so easily recognisable and comprehended (termed irrational reasons). These irrational reasons are the perceptions and attitude of the farmer towards farm practices, and their role in agroforestry planning has remained almost completely neglected. The present study is based on a household survey of the farmers in traditional agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya and investigates the importance of perceptional and attitudinal aspects of the farmers with regard to agroforestry adoption and extension. In the present study, farmers’ perceptions of restrictions on felling of trees from their own land and attitudes towards agroforestry were the most important sociopsychological factors which influenced tree growing. This study implies a need to take into account the socio-psychological factors of the farmers for planning socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The importance of study of various de jure rules and regulations controlling the use of on-farm tree resources and related exemptions and their association with farmers’ perceptions and tree growing is highlighted to develop policies to encourage tree growing in agroforestry.     

樟木头镇社会发展对林业需求问题的探讨

文章综合分析了东莞樟木头镇社会发展、林业生态等方面的现状及存在的主要问题,结合樟木头社会发展实际,提出了林业发展的基本思路及具体措施等。     

浅析石屏县社会化林业可持续发展的对策

通过对石屏县林业产业发展现状、及发展潜力进行分析,提出了石屏县社会化林业可持续发展的对策。     

Informal surveys to assess social forestry at Dibandiba and Aleta Wendo,Ethiopia

Two surveys were carried out at Dibandiba, a semi-arid site in central Ethiopia, and Aleta Wendo, a sub-humid site in southern Ethiopia, to assess farmers' attitudes toward and perceptions of tree planting, levels of social forestry and uses of tree products. At Dibandiba, farmers planted mostlyEucalyptus camaldulensis trees, exclusively on homesteads andAcacia albida was left on farmland. Trees were planted mainly for construction (32%), fuelwood (29%), shade (11%) and cash (11%). Major (85%) uses were fencing, fuelwood, construction and plough handles. Dung was the major source of fuel (56%). At Aleta Wendo, planting consisted ofEucalyptus globulus mostly on private woodlots and homesteads, ofMilletia ferruginea andCordia abyssinica on farms, and ofEuphorbia abyssinica on fences and boundaries. Avocado and pears were also planted. The uses were the same as at Dibandiba. Major constraints were lack of seedlings and shortage of land at both sites, plus shortage of water at Dibandiba. Also, a review of information obtained from previous surveys on household composition and income, farm holding, cropping pattern, livestock composition and the use of labour was made.     

Foresters' beliefs about farmers: a priority for social science research in social forestry

This study suggests that one of the most productive (and most neglected) uses of social science research in forestry development projects is to examine foresters' beliefs regarding rural peoples. This suggestion is illustrated with data from the Forestry Planning and Development Project, Pakistan's first nation-wide social forestry project.The operational component of this project, intended to assist small farmers to cultivate trees on their farmlands, ran into immediate difficulties. Many of the foresters involved insisted that small farmers were simply not interested in tree cultivation. A comprehensive base-line study subsequently was carried out to examine the validity of this belief. The results of this study (confirmed by the subsequent experience with the project in the field) varied markedly from the foresters' beliefs.While many of the foresters believed small farmers were opposed to having trees on their farms and would not agree to plant trees under the project, most farmers already had trees on their farms and expressed interest in planting more; while many foresters believed farmers would only be interested in planting large blocks of market-oriented exotics, most farmers requested small plantings of multi-purpose native trees; while many foresters believed farmers would plant trees only for market sale, most farmers requested trees to meet household needs for fuel and timber; and while many foresters did not think that increasing supplies of fuelwood could reduce the burning of dung, all of the evidence provided by the farmers suggested that it would.The disparity between farmer reality and forester belief is attributed to failures on the part of both foresters and social scientists — failure by foresters to distinguish their non-empirical beliefs about farmers from their empirically-based knowledge of trees, and failure by social scientists to recognize the belief systems of foresters as a legitimate and important object of study. Their study comprises three parts: finding out what the foresters think the farmers want, finding out from the farmers what they actually want, and then analyzing and explaining the differences.     

Role of social aspects in extent of on-farm tree growing in subsistence agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya

Many so-called society-oriented agroforestry programs, mainly in developing countries, fail because they do not take account of the social structure in their design. This study provides empirical evidence of the impact of social structure on the extent of on-farm tree growing. The study has been carried out in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh, in Indian Western Himalaya. Analysis of survey data reveals significant relationships between extent of on-farm tree growing and caste, education of the head of household, family literacy, primary occupation, government employment, mobility of the household head, importance of tree growing for future generations, and holy tree worship practices. Households with concrete houses had more trees than households with mixed, mud and wooden houses. The study implies a need to consider social factors to encourage the level of on-farm tree growing and to design socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The study also emphasises the need for a holistic approach to agroforestry development by integrating other continuing rural development programs with that of agroforestry to increase the level of on-farm tree growing.     

The tree tenure factor in agroforestry with particular reference to Africa

Rights over trees are often distinct from rights over land. Tree tenure consists of a bundle of rights over trees and their produce which may be held by different people at different times. These rights include the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant trees, the right to use trees and tree products, the right to dispose of trees and the right to exclude others from the use of trees and tree products. Factors affecting who had rights include the nature of the tree, the nature of the use and the nature of the person or group. Landowners and tree plants tend to be relatively advantaged in terms of their rights to trees. Those with temporary claims to the land and, in some case, women, tend to be disadvantaged. The implications of tree tenure issues for the design of agroforestry projects are discussed.

---

Resumen Los derechos sobre los arboles muchas veces son distintos a los derechos sobre la tierra. La propiedad del arbol consiste en un lote o derechos sobre arboles y sus productos que pueden ser mantenidos por distintas personas en distintos tiempos. Estos derechos incluyen el derecho a poseer o heredar arboles, el derecho a plantar arboles, el derecho a usar arboles y los productos arboreos, el derecho a disponer de los arboles y el derecho a excluir a otros del uso de los arboles y los productos arboreos. Se incluyen en los factores que afectan quienes tienen determinados derechos la naturaleza de los arboles, la naturaleza de su uso y la naturaleza dela persona o grupo. Terratenientes y plantadores de arboles tienden a tener ventajas en terminos de sus derechos sobre los arboles. Aquellos con derechos temporales y en algunos casos las mujeres tienden a estar en desventaja. Aqui se discute la problematica de las implicancias de la tenencia de los arboles para el diseno de proyectos silvo-agropecuarios.

     

The role of NGOs in improving social forestry practice: Do they promote livelihood, sustainability and optimal land use in Bangladesh?

The encroachment rate in forests in Bangladesh is high and increasing — accelerated by rural poverty and the demand for dwelling space and forest products — causing environmental degradation as well as loss of forest cover and productivity. The forests are managed by the Forest Department, although a substantial area of marginal land belongs to other semi-public agencies including Roads and Highways and the Water Development Board. This marginal land has been left unused or underutilized. In contrast, nongovernmental organizations have an appropriate accessibility and technology disseminating ability to utilize this land in reducing poverty and enhancing rural livelihood, and have been highly active and successful in rehabilitating encroached forests. NGOs have added a new dimension to forest management, which has ensured community participation and protection of the forests, both planted and natural. This study evaluates the social forestry activities of four large NGOs, namely BRAC, Proshika, Caritas and CARE-Bangladesh, as well as national social forestry activities. By adopting a common partnership between public and private authority, property right conflicts have been resolved and rural livelihoods enhanced, and scope has been created for utilizing marginal land. The NGO partnership has been effective in reducing poverty and improving livelihoods. As an outcome of this common partnership, 33,472 km of roadside planting and 53,430 ha of reforestation activities have been carried out during the last two decades.     

Evaluating agroforestry interventions in extension projects

Because of the relative dearth of scientific information in agroforestry, monitoring and evaluation of agroforestry technologies in development projects plays an important role in the development and improvement of technical extension recommendations. To identify appropriate methodologies, ICRAF conducted in 1988–89 a review of agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation in 166 projects worldwide, of which 108 responded. Almost 80% of these were involved in technology evaluation. Many extension projects were conducting research to test technologies on-farm or on research plots. Technology evaluation by projects focused on the biological of trees, often with inadequate consideration of the technology context. Few projects seemed to use farmer assessment in evaluation. Recommendations are made for an effective evaluation process and selection of appropriate methods and variables to be assessed by projects. Methods should be selected according to the availability of resources and should favour collaborative or collegial interaction between farmers and project staff.     

沙地樟子松人工林混农经营的生态经济效益

在沙区樟子松人工林中开展混农经营研究,结果表明:混农经营改善了林地的水分养分条件,增强了林木抗病能力,并且种植带内风蚀程度很轻;混农经营促进了林木生长,当种植带宽度为7 m时,花生、黑豆产量分别达到农田地产量的80%、60%,实现了林地长短期经济效益的结合。在樟子松人工林中开展混农经营兼顾了林分的生态和经济效益。     

An ex-post methodology for measuring poor people's participation in social forestry: an example from Java, Indonesia

One of the key goals of social forestry is to involve the poor as project beneficiaries. It is possible to measure the degree of attainment of this goal by collecting socioeconomic data before and after project implementation. This approach cannot be applied at the many sites where ex-ante data were never gathered. This article proposes a methodology for evaluating the degree of inclusion of the poor in social forestry using ex-post data alone. Longitudinal analysis is approximated through the use of ‘slow change’ socioeconomic variables and through logistic regression. The methodology is illustrated with data on the Java Social forestry Program. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Planning for appropriate forestry enterprises: lessons from rural development experience in Third World Countries

Over the last decade, forestry has become increasingly more involved with and integrated into the more general rural development (RD) process in the Third World. In doing so, forestry joins an activity that has itself been developing and maturing for some three decades and more, in the course of which a good deal of useful experience has been accumulated. This paper attempts to distill from that experience lessons that will be helpful in forestry development planning. This focus is first on the constraints that have affected RD, sometimes quite severely, in terms of resources, organization, policy, and the socio-political sphere. Second, the paper evaluates the experience with rural institutions as vehicles for promoting and nurturing RD, with particular emphasis on local organizations and popular participation in them. The third focus is on applying some of these lessons to the forestry sector, using as examples the issues of employment creation, regional growth, women's participation and distributional equity of development benefits.     

参与式林业与湖南林业可持续发展

介绍了参与式林业的概念、原则和内涵 ,阐明了引入参与式林业对促进湖南林业可持续性发展的重要意义 ,对参与式林业在实践应用中存在的问题进行了分析 ,并提出了建议。     

The theory of social forestry intervention: the state of the art in Asia

This study focuses on the major issues in current thinking about the theory of social forestry development in Asia. The first of these issues concerns the cause of deforestation. The governmental view is that deforestation is a gradual process driven by community-based factors, whereas the community view is that deforestation is a stochastic process driven by external, political-economic factors. The two explanations have different implications for where the problematique of social forestry is located — in the forest community or in the forest agency — and how, therefore, it is to be addressed.A second issue concerns how and when social forestry interventions are carried out. The concept of a window-of-opportunity for intervention reflects a widespread belief that it is importantwhen interventions are carried out — with both the costs and benefits of intervention increasing as it is timed earlier and decreasing as it is timed later. A key determinant of the best time for intervention is the receptivity of the forest agency and the broader society. The purpose of intervention is to strengthen receptivity and other factors conducive to change, to hasten extant processes of change, and to minimize the possibility of a reversal of direction.A third issue is whether the focus of social forestry intervention should be on state lands or on community lands. While there are logical reasons for either foci, the continuing vacillation between them suggests the lack of a theoretical perspective with sufficient breadth to encompass them both. Whatever the focus, attitudinal change within the forest agency is usually mandated in social forestry interventions, but it is rarely accompanied with intervention in the underlying power relations, reflecting a continuing difficulty in viewing the forest agency sociologically. This lack of sociological perspective also is seen in the tendency to focus on adding resources perceived to be in short supply, instead of removing institutional obstacles —including those within the forest agency — to the proper use of existing resources.The final issue involves the unintended consequences of social forestry intervention. These include redirection of the intervention as a result of bureaucratic resistance or negative feedback, and secondary consequences stemming from the dynamic responses by forests, forest communities, and forest agencies to changes in their relationship.     

Eucalyptus in agroforestry: its effects on agricultural production and economics

The economics of eucalyptus in agroforestry and its effects on agricultural crops have been studied with the help of observations made during the harvests in agricultural fields and from the information supplied by progressive farmers. Three rotations of eucalyptus in agroforestry were selected for comparative study of its returns and relative loss to the crops, in order to ascertain the optimum rotation: i.e. the one giving the maximum internal rate of return with minimum loss to agricultural crops.     

新形势下林业科技推广面临的问题与对策

林业科技推广工作是一项具有全局性、长远性和战略性的社会经济工作,对农村、林区的物质文化水平的提高和农村社会稳定和发展具有重要的作用。各级林业科技推广组织是联系林农的纽带,与林农关系密切,在林农中有威信,是林业科技推广工作的一支重要力量。但目前林业科技推广建设已经不适应新形势下林业发展对林业科技推广工作的新要求,阻碍农村、林区经济的健康发展。通过分析探索制定合理的策略,促进林业科技推广工作适应林业可持续发展的要求。