Parallel patterns of evolution in the genomes and transcriptomes of humans and chimpanzees

The determination of the chimpanzee genome sequence provides a means to study both structural and functional aspects of the evolution of the human genome. Here we compare humans and chimpanzees with respect to differences in expression levels and protein-coding sequences for genes active in brain, heart, liver, kidney, and testis. We find that the patterns of differences in gene expression and gene sequences are markedly similar. In particular, there is a gradation of selective constraints among the tissues so that the brain shows the least differences between the species whereas liver shows the most. Furthermore, expression levels as well as amino acid sequences of genes active in more tissues have diverged less between the species than have genes active in fewer tissues. In general, these patterns are consistent with a model of neutral evolution with negative selection. However, for X-chromosomal genes expressed in testis, patterns suggestive of positive selection on sequence changes as well as expression changes are seen. Furthermore, although genes expressed in the brain have changed less than have genes expressed in other tissues, in agreement with previous work we find that genes active in brain have accumulated more changes on the human than on the chimpanzee lineage.     

Geograpehic variation and episodic evolution in an ordovician trilobite

A single lineage of the trilobite Flexicalymene shows two evolutionary "punctuated equilibria" within a 2-million-year, 1000-square-kilometer stratigraphic interval. The 2 x 10(5)-year-long "punctuation" may represent parapatric speciation. Commonness of depth-related clines before, during and after this event suggests that short-term adjustment to local conditions was important in long-term evolution.     

Genome evolution following host jumps in the Irish potato famine pathogen lineage

Many plant pathogens, including those in the lineage of the Irish potato famine organism Phytophthora infestans, evolve by host jumps followed by specialization. However, how host jumps affect genome evolution remains largely unknown. To determine the patterns of sequence variation in the P. infestans lineage, we resequenced six genomes of four sister species. This revealed uneven evolutionary rates across genomes with genes in repeat-rich regions showing higher rates of structural polymorphisms and positive selection. These loci are enriched in genes induced in planta, implicating host adaptation in genome evolution. Unexpectedly, genes involved in epigenetic processes formed another class of rapidly evolving residents of the gene-sparse regions. These results demonstrate that dynamic repeat-rich genome compartments underpin accelerated gene evolution following host jumps in this pathogen lineage.     

Inferring nonneutral evolution from human-chimp-mouse orthologous gene trios

Even though human and chimpanzee gene sequences are nearly 99% identical, sequence comparisons can nevertheless be highly informative in identifying biologically important changes that have occurred since our ancestral lineages diverged. We analyzed alignments of 7645 chimpanzee gene sequences to their human and mouse orthologs. These three-species sequence alignments allowed us to identify genes undergoing natural selection along the human and chimp lineage by fitting models that include parameters specifying rates of synonymous and nonsynonymous nucleotide substitution. This evolutionary approach revealed an informative set of genes with significantly different patterns of substitution on the human lineage compared with the chimpanzee and mouse lineages. Partitions of genes into inferred biological classes identified accelerated evolution in several functional classes, including olfaction and nuclear transport. In addition to suggesting adaptive physiological differences between chimps and humans, human-accelerated genes are significantly more likely to underlie major known Mendelian disorders.     

Chromosomal location and evolutionary rate variation in enterobacterial genes

The basal rate of DNA sequence evolution in enterobacteria, as seen in the extent of divergence between Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, varies greatly among genes, even when only "silent" sites are considered. The degree of divergence is clearly related to the level of gene expression, reflecting constraints on synonymous codon choice. However, where this constraint is weak, among genes not expressed at high levels, divergence is also related to the chromosomal location of the gene; it appears that genes furthest away from oriC, the origin of replication, have a mutation rate approximately two times that of genes near oriC.     

Rapid pneumococcal evolution in response to clinical interventions

Epidemiological studies of the naturally transformable bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae have previously been confounded by high rates of recombination. Sequencing 240 isolates of the PMEN1 (Spain(23F)-1) multidrug-resistant lineage enabled base substitutions to be distinguished from polymorphisms arising through horizontal sequence transfer. More than 700 recombinations were detected, with genes encoding major antigens frequently affected. Among these were 10 capsule-switching events, one of which accompanied a population shift as vaccine-escape serotype 19A isolates emerged in the USA after the introduction of the conjugate polysaccharide vaccine. The evolution of resistance to fluoroquinolones, rifampicin, and macrolides was observed to occur on multiple occasions. This study details how genomic plasticity within lineages of recombinogenic bacteria can permit adaptation to clinical interventions over remarkably short time scales.     

Progress in breeding for resistance to Ug99 and other races of the stem rust fungus in CIMMYT wheat germplasm

Races belonging to the Ug99 (TTKSK) lineage of the wheat stem rust fungus, carrying complex virulence combinations, and their migration to countries in Africa, Middle East and Asia continue to pose a significant threat to global wheat production. The rapid spread of additional races, e.g., TKTTF or the Digalu lineage, in several countries causing localized epidemics reminds us of the vulnerability of wheat germplasm to stem rust disease, a formidable foe referenced as early as biblical times. A global rust monitoring system reflecting increased surveillance efforts has identified 13 races within the Ug99 lineage in 13 countries and unrelated lineages are emerging, spreading and posing serious threats to wheat production. Race TKTTF has caused localized epidemics in Ethiopia and its variants have been recently implicated in stem rust outbreaks in Europe. Concerted research efforts have resulted in the identification of several new resistance genes and gene combinations for use in breeding. Combining multiple adult plant resistance (APR) genes in high-yielding backgrounds and discovery of new quantitative trait loci conferring stem rust resistance has progressed in the recent years, enhancing the durability of resistance. Effective gene stewardship and new generation breeding materials and cultivars that combine multiple race-specific or minor to intermediate effect APR genes, complemented by active surveillance and monitoring, have helped to limit major epidemics and increase grain yield potential in key target environments.     

Mobile DNA in Old World monkeys: a glimpse through the rhesus macaque genome

The completion of the draft sequence of the rhesus macaque genome allowed us to study the genomic composition and evolution of transposable elements in this representative of the Old World monkey lineage, a group of diverse primates closely related to humans. The L1 family of long interspersed elements appears to have evolved as a single lineage, and Alu elements have evolved into four currently active lineages. We also found evidence of elevated horizontal transmissions of retroviruses and the absence of DNA transposon activity in the Old World monkey lineage. In addition, approximately 100 precursors of composite SVA (short interspersed element, variable number of tandem repeat, and Alu) elements were identified, with the majority being shared by the common ancestor of humans and rhesus macaques. Mobile elements compose roughly 50% of primate genomes, and our findings illustrate their diversity and strong influence on genome evolution between closely related species.     

Evolution of yeast noncoding RNAs reveals an alternative mechanism for widespread intron loss

The evolutionary forces responsible for intron loss are unresolved. Whereas research has focused on protein-coding genes, here we analyze noncoding small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) genes in which introns, rather than exons, are typically the functional elements. Within the yeast lineage exemplified by the human pathogen Candida albicans, we find--through deep RNA sequencing and genome-wide annotation of splice junctions--extreme compaction and loss of associated exons, but retention of snoRNAs within introns. In the Saccharomyces yeast lineage, however, we find it is the introns that have been lost through widespread degeneration of splicing signals. This intron loss, perhaps facilitated by innovations in snoRNA processing, is distinct from that observed in protein-coding genes with respect to both mechanism and evolutionary timing.     

由8个DNA片段推断云南金钱槭的系统位置

云南金钱槭是金钱槭属中的濒危物种,其系统地位迄今存在一定争议。本研究利用6个叶绿体基因片段(psbM-trnD、rbcL、trnD-trnT、rpl16、trnL-trnF与psbA-trnH)和2个核基因片段(ITS与CHS)数据,采用最大简约法(MP)及贝叶斯法(BI)对该种及若干近缘类群进行了系统发育分析,从而探讨云南金钱槭的系统位置。结果显示:1)基于6个叶绿体基因联合数据分析,云南金钱槭所在的金钱槭属形成单系群并与槭属彼此独立,互为姐妹属。2)基于CHS数据分析,金钱槭属物种自身形成单系群,但与槭属物种混在一起。3)基于ITS数据分析,金钱槭属为并系群,其中云南金钱槭内嵌于系统发育树的末端与梣叶槭聚在同一进化分枝。本研究中,不同数据集的结果出现冲突,可能是由于不同基因片段进化速率存在差异的影响。此外,核CHS基因在槭树科植物中的有效变异信息位点较少以及核ITS基因存在多拷贝的现象,均可能造成与6个叶绿体基因组合的分析结果出现差异。综合研究结果并参考形态学证据,倾向于云南金钱槭的系统位置继续归属于金钱槭属。进一步增加基因片段可能有助于云南金钱槭系统位置的明确。      

Extrachromosomal microDNAs and chromosomal microdeletions in normal tissues

We have identified tens of thousands of short extrachromosomal circular DNAs (microDNA) in mouse tissues as well as mouse and human cell lines. These microDNAs are 200 to 400 base pairs long, are derived from unique nonrepetitive sequence, and are enriched in the 5'-untranslated regions of genes, exons, and CpG islands. Chromosomal loci that are enriched sources of microDNA in the adult brain are somatically mosaic for microdeletions that appear to arise from the excision of microDNAs. Germline microdeletions identified by the "Thousand Genomes" project may also arise from the excision of microDNAs in the germline lineage. We have thus identified a previously unknown DNA entity in mammalian cells and provide evidence that their generation leaves behind deletions in different genomic loci.     

A new mammaliaform from the early Jurassic and evolution of mammalian characteristics

A fossil from the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian, approximately 195 million years ago) represents a new lineage of mammaliaforms, the extinct groups more closely related to the living mammals than to nonmammaliaform cynodonts. It has an enlarged cranial cavity, but no postdentary trough on the mandible, indicating separation of the middle ear bones from the mandible. This extends the earliest record of these crucial mammalian features by some 45 million years and suggests that separation of the middle ear bones from the mandible and the expanded brain vault could be correlated. It shows that several key mammalian evolutionary innovations in the ear region, the temporomandibular joint, and the brain vault evolved incrementally through mammaliaform evolution and long before the differentiation of the living mammal groups. With an estimated body weight of only 2 grams, its coexistence with other larger mammaliaforms with similar "triconodont-like" teeth for insectivory within the same fauna suggests a great trophic diversity within the mammaliaform insectivore feeding guild, as inferred from the range of body sizes.     

The ecoresponsive genome of Daphnia pulex

We describe the draft genome of the microcrustacean Daphnia pulex, which is only 200 megabases and contains at least 30,907 genes. The high gene count is a consequence of an elevated rate of gene duplication resulting in tandem gene clusters. More than a third of Daphnia's genes have no detectable homologs in any other available proteome, and the most amplified gene families are specific to the Daphnia lineage. The coexpansion of gene families interacting within metabolic pathways suggests that the maintenance of duplicated genes is not random, and the analysis of gene expression under different environmental conditions reveals that numerous paralogs acquire divergent expression patterns soon after duplication. Daphnia-specific genes, including many additional loci within sequenced regions that are otherwise devoid of annotations, are the most responsive genes to ecological challenges.     

Birth of two chimeric genes in the Hominidae lineage

How genes with newly characterized functions originate remains a fundamental question. PMCHL1 and PMCHL2, two chimeric genes derived from the melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) gene, offer an opportunity to examine such an issue in the human lineage. Detailed structural, expression, and phylogenetic analysis showed that the PMCHL1 gene was created near 25 million years ago (Ma) by a complex mechanism of exon shuffling through retrotransposition of an antisense MCH messenger RNA coupled to de novo creation of splice sites. PMCHL2 arose 5 to 10 Ma by an event of duplication involving a large chromosomal region encompassing the PMCHL1 locus. The RNA expression patterns of those chimeric genes suggest that they have been submitted to strong regulatory constraints during primate evolution.     

Genes lost and genes found: evolution of bacterial pathogenesis and symbiosis

Traditionally, evolutionary biologists have viewed mutations within individual genes as the major source of phenotypic variation leading to adaptation through natural selection, and ultimately generating diversity among species. Although such processes must contribute to the initial development of gene functions and their subsequent fine-tuning, changes in genome repertoire, occurring through gene acquisition and deletion, are the major events underlying the emergence and evolution of bacterial pathogens and symbionts. Furthermore, pathogens and symbionts depend on similar mechanisms for interacting with hosts and show parallel trends in genome evolution.     

Mobile elements: drivers of genome evolution

Mobile elements within genomes have driven genome evolution in diverse ways. Particularly in plants and mammals, retrotransposons have accumulated to constitute a large fraction of the genome and have shaped both genes and the entire genome. Although the host can often control their numbers, massive expansions of retrotransposons have been tolerated during evolution. Now mobile elements are becoming useful tools for learning more about genome evolution and gene function.     

犬源H9N2亚型流感病毒的遗传进化及其致病性分析

【目的】明确犬源H9N2亚型流感病毒的分子变异特征及致病性,为今后探究流感病毒的禽—犬跨种传播机制提供科学依据。【方法】从流浪犬中分离H9N2亚型流感病毒,利用RT-PCR扩增其8个基因节段进行BLAST同源比对,然后基于国内外的22株参考毒株进行遗传进化分析,并通过小鼠滴鼻感染试验评估分离毒株的致病性。【结果】从采集的393份犬鼻拭子样品中分离获得1株H9N2亚型流感病毒,命名为A/canine/Guangxi/LZ11/2018(简写为LZ11)。分离毒株LZ11为三重组毒株,其中,HA、NA和NS基因属于BJ/94类谱系,PB2和M基因属于G1类谱系,PB1、PA和NP基因属于F/98类谱系;病毒基因组成属于近年我国广泛流行的S基因型。分离毒株LZ11的HA蛋白在第324~331位存在1个裂解位点(PSRSSR↓GL),符合低致病性流感病毒的特征;HA蛋白还出现226Q→L突变,具有优先结合人类α-2,6唾液酸受体的能力;NA蛋白在119E、151D、276E、292R和294N未发生突变,但M2蛋白出现31S→N突变,说明分离毒株LZ11仍对神经氨酸酶抑制剂敏感,但已对金刚烷胺类药物产生耐药性;聚合酶蛋白出现多个哺乳动物适应性相关的氨基酸位点突变,包括PB2蛋白的292I→V、PB1蛋白的368I→V及PA蛋白的409S→N和356K→R。分离毒株LZ11虽然未引起小鼠出现典型的临床症状,但可在肺脏和上鼻窦有效复制,病毒滴度分别为3.82和5.98 lg PFU/mL。【结论】分离获得的犬源H9N2亚型流感病毒属于近年流行的S基因型,其8个基因节段分属于3种谱系(BJ/94类谱系、G1类谱系和F/98类谱系),且存在多个哺乳动物适应性相关氨基酸位点突变,具备感染哺乳动物的分子特征,可在小鼠脏器内有效复制。鉴于人类与宠物犬的密切关系,今后应加强对犬源H9N2亚型流感病毒的监测与防控。     

Floral gigantism in Rafflesiaceae

Species of Rafflesiaceae possess the world's largest flowers (up to 1 meter in diameter), yet their precise evolutionary relationships have been elusive, hindering our understanding of the evolution of their extraordinary reproductive morphology. We present results of phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial, nuclear, and plastid data showing that Rafflesiaceae are derived from within Euphorbiaceae, the spurge family. Most euphorbs produce minute flowers, suggesting that the enormous flowers of Rafflesiaceae evolved from ancestors with tiny flowers. Given the inferred phylogeny, we estimate that there was a circa 79-fold increase in flower diameter on the stem lineage of Rafflesiaceae, making this one of the most dramatic cases of size evolution reported for eukaryotes.     

Whole-genome analysis of photosynthetic prokaryotes

The process of photosynthesis has had profound global-scale effects on Earth; however, its origin and evolution remain enigmatic. Here we report a whole-genome comparison of representatives from all five groups of photosynthetic prokaryotes and show that horizontal gene transfer has been pivotal in their evolution. Excluding a small number of orthologs that show congruent phylogenies, the genomes of these organisms represent mosaics of genes with very different evolutionary histories. We have also analyzed a subset of "photosynthesis-specific" genes that were elucidated through a differential genome comparison. Our results explain incoherencies in previous data-limited phylogenetic analyses of phototrophic bacteria and indicate that the core components of photosynthesis have been subject to lateral transfer.