Methods for conducting an economic opportunity survey in smallholder dairy farms

A form was developed for on-farm use to collect data on dairy cow inventory, animals born, died, and sold, milk consumed and sold, and feedstuffs. Using these data, ten herd management indices are calculated in a spreadsheet. These data are gathered from multiple farms in an area and are summarized to develop herd target or benchmark values. Economic opportunities for achieving target performance at the individual farm level are calculated for five of the indices. This Economic Opportunity Survey has been used to develop regional performance benchmarks and to help individual farmers identify areas for improvement and opportunities for future intervention.     

Economic opportunity survey of small scale dairy farms of the north west province of Cameroon

An Economic Opportunity Survey was conducted on dairy farms in the North West Province of Cameroon. Results showed that median (range) number of cows in milk per farm was zero point six (0–4) and six (3–12) in the zero grazing and transhumance systems, respectively. Medians (range) of three (0–24) and four (3–10) litres of milk were sold per farm per day, corresponding to 30% and 60% of milk produced. 24% and 13% of total cattle per herd were milking cows in the zero grazing and transhumance systems respectively. Median milk production per cow on one day was two (0–25) and two (1–3) litres. Median calf production interval was 14.5 (12–25) and. 21.5 (14–29) months. More milk produced per day represented the best economic opportunity in both systems while reduced age at first calving and longer lactation length were the next in both. Wastage of milk through spoilage from poor hygiene and lack of cooling was a major problem. Holstein cows, which were in the zero grazing system, had unexpectedly short lactations. Constraints identified led to the setting up of interventions of training and advice for farmers and of better nutrition.     

An economic opportunity survey of small dairy farms in Paraguay

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in 15 small farms and an economic opportunity survey (EOS) in 13 were carried out in the Cordillera basin of Paraguay to identify production constraints and the best ways to achieve economic gain. PRA showed farmers’ perception was that nutrition was the main constraint. The EOS showed that over 70% of the milk produced was sold in the neighbourhood. The average number of adult cows (lactating and dry cows) per farm ranged from 15 to 120, of which 62.2% to 80% were lactating cows. Milk production per cow on one day ranged from 8.5 to 18.2 litres and average lactation length was more than 300 days. Average age at first calving varied from 31 to 39 months. The highest economic opportunity was observed for increased milk production. Age at first calving and calf production interval were also found to be important constraints. Ultrasonography survey of the ovaries 20 maiden heifers over six months showed inadequate activity. Partially budgeted interventions were instituted to improve nutrition and management of maiden heifers, in-calf cows and those in early lactation. More forages were grown. PRA and EOS were shown to be useful tools in identifying production constraints.     

Integrated approach for improving small scale market oriented dairy systems in Pakistan: participatory rural appraisal and economic opportunity survey

Livestock production is an integral part of the rain-fed and irrigated agriculture system in Pakistan. Animal production is closely interlinked with the cropping systems and play a crucial role in the rural economy. Participatory rural appraisals and economic opportunity surveys were conducted in two ecological zones (irrigated and rain-fed) and two dairy production systems (peri-urban and mixed livestock). Major constraints in animal health, nutrition and reproduction were identified and interventions were suggested to overcome these difficulties. The economic opportunity survey revealed that maximum opportunity to enhance farmers’ income is to increase milk production per day per animal, which can be accomplished through coordinated improvements in nutrition, reproduction and genetics.     

Participatory rural appraisal to identify needs and prospects of market-oriented dairy industries in Bangladesh

We assessed resources, challenges and prospects of the dairy industries in four districts of Bangladesh (Mymensingh, Satkhira, Chittagong and Sirajganj) with the participation of 8 to 12 dairy farm families in each district. We used ten participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools, namely social mapping, semi-structured interview, activity profiles, seasonal calendar, pie charts, mobility diagram, matrix ranking, preference ranking and scoring, system analysis diagram and focus group discussion in 57 PRA sessions from September through October 2002. Dairying contributed more to family income (63 to 74%) and utilized a smaller portion of land than did crops. Twenty seven to 49% of cattle feed is rice straw. Only Sirajganj and Chittagong had limited, periodic grazing facilities. Fodder (Napier; Pennisetum purpureum) cultivation was practiced in Sirajganj and Satkhira. Fodder availability increased milk production and decreased disease occurrence. Friesian crossbred cows were ranked best as dairy cattle. The present utilization of veterinary and AI services was ranked highly. Farmers outside the milk union desired milk purchasing centres as the most required service in the future. They identified veterinary and AI services as inadequate and desired significant improvements. The PRA tools effectively identified resources, constraints, opportunities and farmers’ perspectives related to the dairy industries in Bangladesh.     

A survey of manure management on pig farms in Northern Vietnam

Animal manure can provide nutrients for crop and fish production and input for biogas production but, if managed inappropriately, can also have a negative impact on the environment. The objective of this survey was to provide information about pig production and manure management practices in the Northern part of Vietnam in order to identify and prioritize research needs for future improvements in pig manure management. A survey was conducted by in-depth interviews on 54 pig farms in two Northern Vietnamese provinces, Thai Binh and Bac Giang. In addition to the survey, also key informant responses were obtained in the two provinces to help identify problems with existing manure management. The survey showed that large-scale pig producers (> 100 fatteners or 20 sows) had more pigs per hectare than medium-scale (19–99 fatteners, 5–19 sows) or small-scale (< 19 fatteners, < 5 sows) producers. Biogas was produced from 43% of the total manure produced on all surveyed farms, and was used for cooking. The proportion of total manure applied to crops was only 5% in Thai Binh and 35% in Bac Giang. Large-scale producers tended to operate smaller fishponds, and medium-scale farms operated larger ones. The farmers were of the opinion that fish in ponds fertilized with pig manure grew significantly faster than did fish in ponds supplied with other feed or types of fertilizer. Twenty percent of pig producers reported that they raised pigs just to provide manure to feed their pond fish. A large proportion (19%) of the total manure produced was discharged into public sewage systems, rivers and lakes. Of the 54 householders interviewed, 46 believed that animal manure caused serious damage to the environment. Farmers interviewed had little or no expertise in handling liquid manure, composting solid manure, or reducing contamination by means of microbial reduction of pollutants during manure management. In general, specialized pig production is seen as a commercial operation, while manure management remains non-commercial. The survey implied that more information to farmers, as well as stronger regulation of manure management, is needed in Vietnam.     

Dairy production practices among smallholder dairy farmers in Butere/Mumias and Kakamega districts in Western Kenya

A survey was conducted on 176 smallholder dairy farms in Butere/Mumias and Kakamega districts of Western Kenya to establish the dairy production practices and constraints in the industry. There was low milk production (16.6 kg of milk per capita), which was attributed to the low number of dairy animals. The average land size was 2.4 ha with only 30.3% being allocated to pasture or fodder crops. Farmers with large farms (>2 ha) set aside bigger pieces (1.2 vs 0.4 ha) for pasture/fodder crop cultivation (p < 0.001), owned more (5.25 vs 3.18) dairy animals (p < 0.01) and produced more (9.2 vs 7.5 kg/cow per day) milk (p < 0.05) compared to those on smaller farms of less than 2 ha. The average herd size was 4.2 animals, of which only 45.0% were in milk, producing 8.0 kg/animal per day. Every kilogram of dairy meal fed increased milk production by 0.68 kg (p < 0.001). Over 90% of milk produced was consumed locally. The public institutions provided 74% of total extension services to farmers. About 49.5% of total dairy animals were bought from other districts owing to scarcity.     

Organic dairy farming in Norway under the 100% organically produced feed requirement

The derogation to use a percentage of cheaper non-organic feeds in organic livestock diets for herbivores expired from January 2008. (In Norway, a maximum of 15% conventional feedstuffs per year was allowed until 24 August 2005, 5% in the interim.) This study aimed to assess changes in resource use and financial impacts for organic dairy herds of the 100% organic feeding rule (compared with 85% organic feeds) using a two-stage stochastic programming modelling framework. In this study, the objective function was to maximise expected net income. Two organic dairy farms in the lowlands of southern Norway, both having a milk quota of 100,000 l but with varying farmland availability (37 ha vs. 20 ha), were examined. Furthermore, situations with and without possibilities to buy organic silage were studied. Milk production per cow was highest on the farm with the most strict land constraint. For farmers that fully utilise the non-organic feed allowance, the more expensive organic feeds determine the marginal feed cost. Hence, a removal of the non-organic feed allowance will not influence optimal farm practice (provided that marginal milk production is still profitable). A switch from conventional to organic concentrates as the only adjustment was found on the 37 ha farm and also on the 20 ha farm if there was no possibility to buy some organic silage. On the 20 ha farm with possibilities to buy organic silage, it turned out to be unprofitable to keep all the cows. Fewer cows resulted in several other changes in the model solution such as a lower milk yield per cow, less milk produced in total and more work off-farm. The financial gain from carrying out the optimal management changes was, however, very small. In all cases studied, the introduction of 100% organic feeds resulted in an economic loss of NOK 19,200–23,600 (or 7–12% of the expected net income with 85% organic feeds). The economic losses were due to the price premium of organic concentrates.     

Radioimmunoassay of milk progesterone as a tool for fertility control in smallholder dairy farms

This study focused on the use of radioimmunoassay of progesterone in milk for the diagnosis of post-partum ovarian cyclicity and accurate detection of oestrus and non-pregnancy in cows in the artificial insemination (AI) programme in Bangladesh. In Investigation 1, milk samples were collected on day 0 (day of AI), day 9–13 and day 21–24 from 444 milking cows of various breeds presented for the first post-partum insemination by 413 farmers living at 182 villages/regions in Mymensingh District from 6 AI centres and sub-centres. Each cow was then examined three times after each AI until it stopped returning to oestrus. Sixty to 90 days after the last AI, the cows were examined per rectum to confirm the pregnancy. Milk progesterone data on day 21–24 contributed to a clear diagnosis with respect to non-pregnancy in 100% cows, indicating a possible use of this progesterone assay for identifying non-pregnant cows in AI programmes. In Investigation 2, milk progesterone was monitored two times in a month with a 10-day interval in 88 cows. The samples were taken between 10 days after calving and the first detected oestrus, followed by two more samples 10 days apart. The proportion of cows accurately detected in oestrus was 30%. Another 30% were stated to be in oestrus when they were not (false positive) and 40% were not detected when they were in oestrus (false negative). The mean intervals between calving and oestrus and between calving luteal activity were 40 to 362 days (median = 120, n = 82) and 34 to 398 (median = 111, n = 64) days, respectively. The body condition scores at calving and at the initiation of luteal activity influenced the interval between calving and luteal activity (p < 0.05). Cows suckled twice daily initiated luteal activity earlier than their counterparts suckled several times daily (p < 0.05). Determination of progesterone in milk on day 21–24 is a good means for detecting non-pregnant cows.     

A longitudinal study to identify constraints to dairy cattle health and production in rural smallholder communities in Northern Vietnam

The objective of the study was to investigate constraints to dairy cattle health and production in rural smallholder communities in northern Vietnam, one of the target areas of the Vietnam government's dairy development programme. A total of 99 dairy farms (11 per commune) were recruited from 9 of 32 communes in Ba Vi District, using random two-stage cluster sampling. After the initial questionnaire interviews were conducted, farms were visited at three monthly intervals over a period of 1 year. Information on several health and production parameters relating to the study cattle was collected. Using multiple indicator modelling, it was found that Fasciola infestation, farmers who had been involved in dairying for longer (not indicative of better management skills), larger herd size, and cattle being kept in a shed were linked to reduced reproductive performances.     

Converting to organic dairy farming: Consequences for production, somatic cell scores and calving interval of first parity Holstein cows

This paper aims to describe the changes prompted by conversion to organic farming for milk production and fertility of first parity Holstein cows.

Data was collected for Dutch organic farms, with a distinction made between long-standing-organic farms, converted organic farms and a reference group of conventional farms. The percentage Holstein blood in the herds, milk production (kg milk, % milk fat, % milk protein), somatic cell scores (SCS), calving interval (CI) and age at first calving (AFC) were described over time. An animal model was used to estimate the effects of conversion on different traits based on data from converted organic farms.

Milk production was lower and somatic cell counts were higher on long-standing-organic farms than on conventional and converted organic farms. Interestingly, at pre-organic farms, i.e. before their conversion, the milk production level was already lower than at conventional farms.

The estimates from our statistical analysis showed a highly significant decrease in milk yield and protein percentage due to conversion. Also fat content decreased, SCS increased and AFC increased significantly.

It can be concluded that the conversion to organic farming is a gradual process over years. Dutch farmers who decided during the late 1990s to convert to organic farming, represented a specific group of farmers distinct from conventional farmers, which was reflected by lower milk yields, milk fat percentage and protein percentage before conversion as compared to conventional farms. During conversion, significant changes in milk production, protein and fat contents and somatic cell scores took place. Age of first calving is an important difference between organic and conventional farming.     

Udder health and risk factors for subclinical mastitis in organic dairy farms in Switzerland

A study was performed in 1997 to estimate the prevalence and to investigate the etiology of subclinical mastitis in Swiss dairy herds managed under guidelines of controlled organic farming. It was planned as a longitudinal study over a period of 1 year and included a stratified random sample of 152 certified organic farms and 1907 cows. Two farm visits (the first from June to October when cows were on pasture, the second from January to March when cows were confined to barns) were performed on each farm. At each visit, farm management and individual-cow data (with emphasis on milking procedures and udder sanitation) were recorded. California mastitis tests (CMTs) were performed on each udder quarter of all cows in lactation. Milk samples with CMT >1+ were submitted for somatic cell counting (SCC), bacteriological examination and to test for antibiotic susceptibility. The SCC and germ-cell counts of monthly bulk-tank milk samples were available through Dairy Inspection and Advisory Services and milk production data of 567 herd-book cows were available from breeding associations. Possible individual and environmental predictors of subclinical mastitis were identified using logistic models adjusted for clustering of the data at herd and cow levels. Data were analyzed separately for cows from 7 to 100 and from 101 to 305 days post partum. Prevalences of subclinical mastitis at the quarter level were 21.2% for lactation period 7–100 days and 34.5% for 101–305 days post partum. The geometric mean SCC in bulk-tank milk samples was 85.6×10³ cells/ml. Samples at 7–100 and 101–305 days post partum were positive for Staphylococcus aureus in 16.0 and 7.4%, for coagulase-negative Staphylococci in 51.5 and 50.6%, for Streptococcus agalactiae in 0.0 and 0.8%, for other Streptococci in 19.4 and 15.6%, for E. coli in 1.0 and 0.4%, and for Corynebacterium bovis in 25.7 and 45.1%, respectively. Risks of subclinical mastitis increased significantly with increasing days post partum and advancing age of cow. Cows that were sampled when staying in alpine dairies had considerably higher risks of subclinical mastitis than cows staying in home barns. Significantly lower risks of subclinical mastitis were observed in farms where CMT was performed regularly as a control measure. Bacteria in milk from cows with mastitis exhibited antibiotic resistance at a comparable frequency as found previously in conventional farms.     

Evaluation of biological and economic efficiency of smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam

This study evaluates smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam, comparing a semi-intensive system near a town with good market access, where a Vietnamese improved breed has replaced the indigenous pig breed, and an extensive system away from town, where the indigenous breed still prevails. Fieldwork was conducted in 64 households in four villages. Repeated farm visits yielded 234 structured interviews. Data were analysed by linear models and non-parametric tests. Production inputs and outputs were quantified, and feed use efficiency and economic efficiency were assessed. The gross margin was higher for semi-intensive production with the improved breed, while the benefit–cost ratio was higher under extensive conditions with the indigenous breed. The net benefit did not differ between systems. Twenty-four per cent of farmers yielded a negative net benefit. In one village under extensive conditions, live weight output from indigenous sows with crossbred offspring compared positively with the output from semi-intensive production with improved genotypes, but was associated with high inputs, making production inefficient. Results indicate that improved genotypes might not be an efficient production alternative for saving-oriented production with limited resource supply. Suitability of evaluation parameters, farmers’ production aims, and factors impacting the production success in different systems are discussed.     

A comparison of economic performance between high-yielding temperate breeds and zebu-crossbreds on smallholder dairy farms in Southern Malawi with particular focus on reproductive performance

As in other sub-Saharan African countries, purebred dairy genetics such as Holsteins were imported to Malawi. The study investigated their economic performance by comparing them with local Zebu-crossbreds based on 131 smallholder dairy farm observations from Southern Malawi. High-yielding purebred cows and crossbred cows showed no significant differences in lactation yield and calving interval. Looking at the farms’ actual costs, by-products such as maize bran clearly dominated the cost structure for both breeds, but crossbreeds showed significantly lower concentrate costs. While there was no statistically significant difference in income for both breed types, a substantial share (23%) of farms under investigation shows negative incomes. Based on survey data, two typical farms were established representing standard costs with homogenous assumptions such as identical milk price. The comparison of typical farms covering the full dairy system clearly indicated that crossbred dairy cows outperformed purebreds. In addition, a simulation of a shorter calving interval for both typical farms revealed a substantial positive impact on income for both breed types with more than 30% increase. We conclude that focusing on crossbreds in combination with improved feeding and fertility management offers a more promising strategy for smallholder dairy farms in Southern Malawi than just acquiring high-yielding purebreds.     

White or red clover-grass silage in organic dairy milk production: Grassland productivity and milk production responses with different levels of concentrate

Red (RC) or white (WC) clover were grown in mixture with grasses, ensiled and offered to dairy cows in early lactation over two successive years (48 cows per year) to compare grassland yield, feed intake, milk production and milk quality. The crops were ensiled in round bales and proportional mixtures of the second and third cut prepared each year were used to ensure that the silage treatments were representative of the crop. In addition to silage type, concentrate supplementation, without and with (10 kg/day), was included as a factor in a 2 × 2 factorial, continuous experiment. Total dry matter (DM) yield, silage chemical composition and total DM intake was hardly affected by silage type. There was no effect of silage type on milk yield and milk constituents either, except for higher milk protein content (P < 0.05) on WC and higher milk fat content of C18:3n-3 (P < 0.001), C18:2n-6 (P < 0.05) fatty acids (FAs) and sum of polyunsaturated FA (P < 0.001) and lower n-6/n-3 FA ratio (P < 0.01) on RC. Concentrate supplementation increased total DM, N and net energy intakes (P < 0.001), milk yield (P < 0.001), milk fat (P < 0.01) and protein (P < 0.001) content, decreased the milk urea content (P < 0.001), and increased the milk fat content of short- and medium-chained FAs (< C16, P < 0.001), C18:0 (P < 0.01) and C18:2n-6 (P < 0.001), decreased the content of C16:0 (P < 0.05), C18:1t11 (P < 0.001) and C18:3n-3 (P < 0.001), and increased the n-6/n-3 FA ratio (P < 0.001). The effect of concentrate supplementation was not affected by silage type, except for milk protein content where the positive effect of supplementation was stronger on WC than on RC diets (P < 0.05). This study illustrates that the white- and red clover-grass mixtures investigated were widely similar with regard to their effects on grassland yield, silage intake and milk production and milk constituents, except for a higher milk fat content of C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6 and lower n-6/n-3 FA ratio on red clover diets. Our findings also show that N conversion efficiency from feed to milk on pure forage diets is more sensitive to changes in dietary protein intake than silage diets containing cereal based concentrates.     

A survey of decision making practices,educational experiences,and economic performance of two dairy farm populations in Central Thailand

A survey was performed to characterize the dairy production, educational experiences, decision making practices, and income and expenses of dairy farms and to determine any differences of these practices among two dairy farm populations. Farm groups were identified as farms from the Muaklek dairy cooperative (Muaklek farms) and farms from other dairy cooperatives (Non-Muaklek farms). In April, 2006 questionnaires were distributed to 500 dairy farms located in Lopburi, Nakhon Ratchisima, and Saraburi provinces. A total of 85 farms completed and returned questionnaires. Means and frequencies were calculated for questions across categories and Chi-square tests were performed to determine differences among Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms. Results showed that most farms from both groups had a primary or high school educational level, used a combination confinement and pasture production system, gave a mineral supplement, raised their own replacement females, milked approximately 16 cows/day, used crossbred Holstein cows (75% Holstein or more), and mated purebred Holstein sires to their cows. More Non-Muaklek farms (P < 0.05; 80%) used a combination of genetic and phenotypic information when selecting sires than Muaklek farms (54%). Monthly profit per lactating cow, were 1,641 and 1,029 baht for Muaklek and Non-Muaklek farms, respectively. Overall, information from the study should be useful for dairy cooperatives and other dairy organizations when training farmers in the future and furthering dairy production research in Thailand.     

A cross-sectional survey of Australian chicken farms to identify risk factors associated with seropositivity to Newcastle-disease virus

Several outbreaks of virulent Newcastle-disease occurred in Australia in 1998–2000. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 753 Australian chicken farms to identify risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of chicken flocks with Newcastle-disease virus (NDV). We had a 99.7% response rate to the survey and the overall prevalence of NDV seropositive farms was 39.8%. Associations were analysed for the layer, chicken-meat and breeder production sectors in sector-specific logistic-regression models using 187, 198 and 146 farms, respectively. In the layer sector, increased risk of seroprevalence was associated with increasing age of the chickens, and decreased risk when the nearest-neighbour poultry farm was >10 km distant (odds ratio (OR) = 0.30). In the chicken-meat sector, increased risk of seroprevalence was associated with location in the Sydney basin (OR = 13.67), eastern Victoria (OR = 26.10) or western Victoria (OR = 5.43), and decreased risk when the nearest-neighbour poultry farm was greater than 0.5 km distant (OR = 0.34). In the breeder sector, increased risk of seroprevalence was associated with increasing age of the chickens, the presence of wild birds on the farm (OR = 5.28) and location in eastern Victoria (OR = 16.19). A conditional logistic-regression for 112 pairs of farms matched for age, survey region and production sector identified a distance of >1.0 km to the nearest-neighbour poultry farm (OR = 0.24) and ownership by owner 2 (OR = 0.02), owner 5 (OR = 0.11) or owner 9 (OR = 0.25) as significant in reducing the risk of NDV seroprevalence. Our survey found that high levels of biosecurity and hygiene practices had been adopted by most farms.     

Glycerol use in dairy diets: A systemic review

There is an increasing interest in the production of biodiesel as bio-renewable fuel source, with numerous biofuel byproducts becoming available. The annual productions of biodiesel and crude glycerol were 34.5 and 3.8 billion liters, respectively, in 2016 and that of biodiesel is expected to reach 41 billion liters in 2019. Glycerol is a sugar alcohol without a color or odor, but with a sweet taste and high solubility index in water. Experiments support the use of glycerol at low levels ranging from 5% to 8% of the diet dry matter as a transition cow therapy. Administration of glycerol increases serum glucose and decreases ketone bodies. Glycerol is very rapidly fermented in the rumen to propionate and butyrate, at the expense of acetate, resulting in a decreased milk fat. Because glycerol is highly fermented in the rumen, it requires an adaptation period at the beginning of feeding. Administration of glycerol in the diet of lactating animals was paralleled with a decreased or an unaffected feed intake in most experiments. Improved ruminal environment to enhance nutrient digestibility was observed in many experiments; however, others observed reduced digestion of dietary fiber with feeding glycerol. Enhanced, lowered, or unaffected milk production and composition were observed with the administration of glycerol in lactating animal diets; however, in most cases, glycerol decreased milk fat content. The inconsistencies between results of experiments are due to the level and the purity of glycerol, diets, production stage of the animals, and other factors. Therefore, further research should be conducted to establish the efficacy of different levels, purity and administration periods of glycerol, and production stage of dairy animals fed glycerol-based or supplemented diets.     

Managerial practices and factors influencing reproductive performance of dairy cows in urban/peri-urban areas of Kampala and Gulu,Uganda

Background

Urban/peri-urban dairy production and sales has evolved as an adjustment to cope with food security and economic needs for urban dwellers in low-income countries and created an opportunity to transform from subsistence rural lifestyles of dairy farming to commercial engagement in towns. However, urban/peri-urban dairy farms differ in challenges from rural dairy farms and reproduction is important and critical for assuring sustainable economic output in both environments. Here we recorded for the first time differences between two geographically and economically different cities corresponding to different settings within the same country in managerial factors influencing reproductive performance in urban/peri-urban dairy cowherds.

Results

The urban/peri-urban dairy farmers in the capital Kampala were more often male (P = 0.002) and commercialized (P = 0.0025), more experienced (P = 0.0001) and practiced zero-grazing more often (P = 0.05) than in the regional municipality Gulu. Also, the milk production per herd and cow (P = 0.0005) and calving rate were (P = 0.0001) higher in Kampala and artificial insemination was more commonly (P = 0.002) used than in Gulu. There was no difference in abortion nor neonatal mortality rate between the two locations. Overall, calving rates were higher (P = 0.0003) in smaller (≤3 dairy cows) and open grazing (P = 0.003) herds. Abortion rates were higher among dairy herds practicing late (≥5 months) (P = 0.003) calf weaning and in herds with commercial purposes (P = 0.0001). Neonatal calf mortality was lower (P = 0.01) in small herds.

Conclusion

The study showed significant differences between Kampala and Gulu in reproductive performance and related husbandry factors for cows in the urban/peri-urban dairy farming systems. For several reproductive performance traits we found associations with husbandry and production traits, which should be taken into account when providing advice to the urban and peri-urban dairy farmers in the tropics.     

Participatory Livestock Farmer Training for improvement of animal health in rural and peri-urban smallholder dairy herds in Jinja,Uganda

Within the framework of a research project investigating methods to decrease mastitis incidence, farmer groups for participatory training in a modified Farmer Field School approach were initiated in order to improve animal health and farmer knowledge in mastitis control technologies in smallholder dairy farms in the Jinja district of Uganda. Two peri-urban groups and one rural group met for common learning and training two hours per fortnight during a 12-month period, facilitated by two local extension agents together with one or two scientists from Makerere University. Farmers rotated each time between farms owned by group participants, which demanded mutual trust, openness and respect. From their own assessment the farmers felt they had improved their milk production and reduced mastitis incidence on their farms. In an evaluation workshop, they articulated how they had built up common knowledge and experience from training in systematic clinical examination of animals, evaluation of the farm environments, and identification of improvements. Much of the acquired new knowledge was about basic dairy cow management and husbandry practices. In addition, they gave examples of how they were now used as resource persons in their local communities. Principles of learning and empowerment are discussed.