Efficacy of Grid and Zone Soil Sampling Approaches for Site-Specific Assessment of Phosphorus,Potassium, pH,and Organic Matter

Within-field variability of plant-available nutrients often results in different fertilizer requirements across a field. There is uncertainty concerning the efficacy of alternative sampling strategies suitable for site-specific management. This study compared various soil sampling approaches for P, K, pH, and organic matter (OM) in eight agricultural fields. Soil samples were collected using an intensive 0.2-ha grid-point procedure, and were used to compare less intensive sampling approaches. The approaches were based on 1.2–1.6-ha grid cells (Grid), soil series of digitized soil survey maps (SSM), soil series of detailed soil survey (1:12,000 scale) maps, elevation zones, and management zones based on various information layers (ZS). The approaches varied in reducing the within-unit soil-test variability and maximizing mean soil-test values across sampling units, but none was superior across all fields and nutrients. All approaches were less efficient for P and K than for pH or OM. The Grid and ZS approach were the most effective across all nutrients and fields. However, the Grid approach was more effective for P, the Grid and ZS approaches were better for K and pH, and the SSM and ZS approaches were better for OM. The ZS approach often resulted in fewer sampling zones than the Grid approach, which implies lower soil testing costs for producers, but required more knowledge and subjective judgement than a Grid approach to adapt it to field-specific conditions.     

Spatial Analysis of Soil Fertility Parameters

Databases identifying spatial distributions of soil properties are needed to implement site-specific management practices. This study examined spatial patterns for nine soil chemical properties in two adjacent fields, one in a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation with inorganic fertilizer and the other in a 5-yr corn-soybean-corn-oat (Avena sativa L.)-meadow rotation with organic nutrient sources. We established sampling grids in both fields and collected soil cores to a depth of 30 cm. Soil properties with strong spatial correlations (low nugget variance/total variance ratio) and the maximum distance to which those properties were correlated (range) differed for the two fields. Soil pH, exchangeable Ca, total organic C, and total N were strongly correlated and had range values greater than 182 m in the conventional field. Bray P and exchangeable Mg were strongly correlated with range values of less than 100 m within the other. Low nugget/total variance ratios and small range values for P and Mg suggest patchy distributions, probably from long-term animal manure and municipal sludge application. Since most variance was structural in the organic field, placing sampling points closer together would improve data precision. In contrast, a relatively coarse sampling grid with fewer sampling points spaced further apart appears adequate for the conventional field. To develop accurate sampling strategies for precision agriculture, long-term field management histories should be documented since the practices appear to affect both the properties that are strongly correlated and the range to which the correlation exists.     

Long-Term Variable Rate Lime and Phosphorus Application for Piedmont No-Till Field Crops

Variable rate (VR) fertilizer application is a paradigm with potential to improve input efficiency and farm profitability. It is widely marketed by commercial applicators in the southeastern US. However, field studies comparing VR with traditional management have not demonstrated consistent, positive results. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine the soil impact, crop response and economic potential of VR phosphorus (P) and lime application in a North Carolina Piedmont no-till field crop system using intensive soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production and (2) to economically evaluate alternatives to standard commercial grid soil sampling for directing VR P and lime. A 23-ha long-term no-till field in the SE Piedmont was divided into 0.4ha plots assigned to either VR or uniform P and lime application. Grid soil sampling and VR P and lime application were done prior to four crops over 3 years: full season soybean, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)–double cropped soybean, and full season soybean. Soil test P, pH and crop yield response to VR P were inconsistent. Soil pH in areas with low pH initially did increase in response to VR lime, but it took two to three applications to bring all of these areas to the target pH. Once VR-liming raised initially low soil pH to levels close to target, yield of soybean, but not wheat, were up to 0.74Mgha^–1 higher than with uniform lime. Even with significantly higher soybean yields associated with VR lime, 3 years of grid sampling and VR application were not profitable compared to uniform application. The results indicated that VR lime could be profitable if the initial grid sampling data were used either for 2 consecutive years, or if it was used to restrict future grid sampling to specific areas requiring further VR lime.     

磷肥施用对红壤有效磷含量和易流失磷含量的影响(英文)

[目的]该研究旨在探讨好气培养条件下,不同磷肥施用量的红壤中,应用Olsen法和Bray-1法测定的土壤有效磷含量及应用CaCl2法测定的土壤易流失磷含量的变化及其相关关系,为红壤区的磷素管理及磷素流失潜力评价提供理论依据。[方法]试验共设6个土样处理,室内好气培养后测定各土样中Olsen-P、Bray-1P和CaCl2-P含量。[结果]随培养时间的延长,施用不同量磷肥的红壤中Olsen-P含量逐渐降低,Bray-1P含量逐渐升高,CaCl2-P含量呈先升高后降低的趋势;CaCl2-P含量与Olsen-P含量和Bray-1P含量均呈线性相关关系;肥料磷进入红壤Bray-1P库的比例高达62%,进入Olsen-P库的比例为14%,进入CaCl2-P库的比例为0.12%。[结论]好气条件下施用磷肥造成红壤磷流失的风险不大,但随施磷量的增加,磷流失潜能仍会升高,且在施磷初期流失潜能最高。     

磷肥施用对红壤有效磷含量和易流失磷含量的影响

[目的]该研究旨在探讨好气培养条件下,不同磷肥施用量的红壤中,应用Olsen法和Bray-1法测定的土壤有效磷含量及应用CaCl2法测定的土壤易流失磷含量的变化及其相关关系,为红壤区的磷素管理及磷素流失潜力评价提供理论依据。[方法]试验共设6个土样处理,室内好气培养后测定各土样中Olsen-P、Bray-1-P和CaCl2-P含量。[结果]随培养时间的延长,施用不同量磷肥的红壤中Olsen-P含量逐渐降低,Bray-1-P含量逐渐升高,CaCl2-P含量呈先升高后降低的趋势;CaCl2-P含量与Olsen-P含量和Bray-1-P含量均呈线性相关关系;肥料磷进入红壤Bray-1-P库的比例高达62%,进入Olsen-P库的比例为14%,进入CaCl2-P库的比例为0.12%。[结论]好气条件下施用磷肥造成红壤磷流失的风险不大,但随施磷量的增加,磷流失潜能仍会升高,且在施磷初期流失潜能最高。     

Grid soil sampling adoption and abandonment in cotton production

Technology adoption in precision agriculture has received considerable attention, while abandonment has received little. Survey data are now available to evaluate adoption and abandonment decisions. Understanding the factors motivating technology adoption and abandonment has implications for educational efforts directed toward improving the efficiency of production inputs and for research and development to improve the value of precision agriculture technologies. The objective of this research was to identify factors motivating the adoption and abandonment of grid soil sampling in precision cotton production. These decisions were evaluated assuming a random utility model. Data were obtained from a 2005 survey of cotton producers in 11 Southeastern states in the USA. Results from limited dependent variable regressions indicate that younger producers who farmed more cotton area, owned more of their cropland, planted larger amounts of non-cotton area, used a computer for farm management and used a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) in the field were more likely to adopt grid soil sampling for cotton precision farming. Results also suggest that producers with more cotton area who owned livestock and adopted management zone soil sampling were more likely to abandon grid soil sampling, while those who used a PDA in the field, used grid soil sampling for more years and followed up grid soil sampling with variable-rate fertilizer application were less likely to abandon grid soil sampling for cotton production.     

A Model for Agro-Economic Analysis of Soil pH Mapping

Core soil sampling followed by laboratory analysis is the traditional method used to map soil pH prior to variable rate application (VRA) of lime on cropland. A recently developed automated soil sampling system capable of measuring soil pH on-the-go has significantly increased sampling resolution. However, adoption of such systems must be justified economically. This paper presents a method for assessing the economic benefit from automated mapping of soil pH prior to variable rate lime application. In this work, geostatistical, agronomic, and economic methods were used to generate a comprehensive numerical model for quantitative assessment of the net return over cost of liming for different lime management strategies. The strategies included: automated pH mapping, manual grid soil sampling, and whole field sampling used in combination with either variable or fixed rate liming. The model was demonstrated using a simulated field with known average pH and semivariogram model. The analysis showed the largest benefit ($6.13ha^–1year^–1) from using VRA with automated soil pH mapping versus VRA based on 1ha (2.5acres) manual grid point sampling for the selected simulated field conditions. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that for a wide range of field conditions and crop prices, VRA plus automated mapping promises higher relative benefits than VRA based on either manual grid point or grid cell sampling.     

中国土壤调查结果的地统计特征

【目的】我国于1979—1987年进行了第二次土壤普查（以下简称“二普”）,2005—2017年进行了农田耕层土壤养分调查。两次调查均为地面采样量大的全国性调查。两次调查生成数据是我国目前最精细的土壤资源与质量时空数据。通过地统计检验方法,探讨我国在这两次调查中所获土壤质量数据的地统计检验特征,为这些数据用于表征土壤资源与质量时空分布状况,及其在其他行业和研究领域的应用提供参考。【方法】检验方法是在我国东、南、西、北、中不同地域选取7个代表性类型区,提取7片区在两次调查中获得的土壤剖面点和耕层采样点0—20 cm土层的土壤有机质含量。选择土壤有机质含量作为检验指标的原因之一是有机质含量是最重要土壤质量性状之一,其二该要素可量化表达。剖面点数据源于二普对典型土壤类型的剖面采样,采样特征为优先选取典型土壤类型,全国完成了10万个0—100 cm剖面分层采样、化验。经数据整合和多要素匹配,有6万个剖面点获得坐标。耕层采样点数据源于2005—2017年农田耕层养分调查,采样为网格化均衡分布的大样本量,全国完成了1 000万个有GPS定位坐标的耕层样本。每片区含土壤剖面点500—1 300个,耕层采样点50 000—250 000个。用普通克里格插值方法进行地统计分析和检验。对每片区剖面点和耕层采样点数据分别随机选取80%数据作为训练样本集建模,20%作为验证样本集。将验证样本预测值与实测值进行线性回归,计算R ²（决定系数）和RMSE（均方根误差）,以此评价两组数据表达土壤要素空间分布特征的可靠性和误差。【结果】剖面数据的地统计检验显示,7片区二普剖面点数据表达的有机质含量分布状况可靠性均达极显著水平,但校验集预测值与实测值相关性较差,R ²值较低,为0.223—0.380,RMSE较高。2005—2017年耕层采样点数据地统计检验显示,通过网格化均衡分布和大样本量的地面采样,耕层采样点所获有机质含量分布图的可靠性和预测精度优于剖面点数据,R ²提高,RMSE下降。两组数据地统计结果还显示：尽管相隔30年,两时段调查展现的土壤有机质含量有一定变化,但两组数据反映的各片区土壤有机质含量空间分布总体规律相似。【结论】当土壤调查为网格化均衡分布的大样本量采样时,就表征土壤要素空间分布特征而言,其可靠性和精度较好;二普生成大比例尺土壤专题图数据（土壤图,有机质含量图,pH图,土壤氮、磷、钾养分含量图）和2005—2017年农田耕层养分调查数据均源于网格化均衡分布的大样本量地面调查,可靠性和精度优于二普剖面点数据。但剖面点含数据类别多,具有点坐标,也有可靠的土壤专题图表达,对了解多类别土壤要素空间分布特征极具价值。二普与农田耕层点养分调查间隔约30年,两时段数据有利于了解土壤质量时空演变。本研究还显示,获取精细土壤质量数据需要进行大样本量地面调查和采样,对于表征土壤类型、土体构造等稳定性要素而言,若地面采样量较小,将难以获得可靠性和精度优于二普的数据。从实际需求和我国已有工作基础考虑,今后土壤调查重点可考虑以土壤功能调查或缺区补漏调查为主。     

Soil Sampling Techniques for Alabama,USA Grain Fields

Characterizing the spatial variability of nutrients facilitates precision soil sampling. Questions exist regarding the best technique for directed soil sampling based on a priori knowledge of soil and crop patterns. The objective of this study was to evaluate zone delineation techniques for Alabama grain fields to determine which method best minimized the soil test variability. Site one (25.8 ha) and site three (20.0 ha) were located in the Tennessee Valley region, and site two (24.2 ha) was located in the Coastal Plain region of Alabama. Tennessee Valley soils ranged from well drained Rhodic and Typic Paleudults to somewhat poorly drained Aquic Paleudults and Fluventic Dystrudepts. Coastal Plain soils ranged from coarse-loamy Rhodic Kandiudults to loamy Arenic Kandiudults. Soils were sampled by grid soil sampling methods (grid sizes of 0.40 ha and 1 ha) consisting of: (1) twenty composited cores collected randomly throughout each grid (grid-cell sampling) and, (2) six composited cores collected randomly from a 3×3m area at the center of each grid (grid-point sampling). Zones were established from (1) an Order 1 Soil Survey, (2) corn (Zea mays L.) yield maps, and (3) airborne remote sensing images. All soil properties were moderately to strongly spatially dependent as per semivariogram analyses. Differences in grid-point and grid-cell soil test values suggested grid-point sampling does not accurately represent grid values. Zones created by soil survey, yield data, and remote sensing images displayed lower coefficient of variations (%CV) for soil test values than overall field values, suggesting these techniques group soil test variability. However, few differences were observed between the three zone delineation techniques. Results suggest directed sampling using zone delineation techniques outlined in this paper would result in more efficient soil sampling for these Alabama grain fields.     

Estimation of surface soil organic matter using a ground-based active sensor and aerial imagery

Active canopy sensors are currently being studied as a tool to assess crop N status and direct in-season N applications. The objective of this study was to use a variety of strategies to evaluate the capability of an active sensor and a wide-band aerial image to estimate surface soil organic matter (OM). Grid soil samples, active sensor reflectance and bare soil aerial images were obtained from six fields in central Nebraska before the 2007 and 2008 growing seasons. Six different strategies to predict OM were developed and tested by dividing samples randomly into calibration and validation datasets. Strategies included uniform, interpolation, universal, field-specific, intercept-adjusted and multiple-layer prediction models. By adjusting regression intercept values for each field, OM was predicted using a single sensor or image data layer. Across all fields, the uniform and universal prediction models resulted in less accurate predictions of OM than any of the other methods tested. The most accurate predictions of OM were obtained using interpolation, field-specific and intercept-adjusted strategies. Increased accuracy in mapping soil OM using an active sensor or aerial image may be achieved by acquiring the data when there is minimal surface residue or where it has been excluded from the sensor’s field-of-view. Alternatively, accuracy could be increased by accounting for soil moisture content with supplementary sensors at the time of data collection, by focusing on the relationship between soil reflectance and soil OM content in the 0–1 cm soil depth or through the use of a subsurface active optical sensor.     

基于GIS的缓坡烟田土壤养分空间变异研究

综合运用地统计学和GIS相结合的方法,分析了缓坡地形下土壤养分的空间变异规律,并绘制养分空间分布图,为山地缓坡烟田养分分区及精准施肥决策提供理论依据.结果表明:研究区内4种养分含量均具中等程度变异.土壤有机质、碱解氮、速效磷和速效钾的变程分别为61.8、76.3、70.5 m和57 m.土壤速效钾的分形维数最高,有机质和碱解氮其次,速效磷最低.有机质和速效钾的最适模型为指数模型,块金系数分别为30.9％和31.1％;碱解氮和速效磷可用球状模型进行较好拟合,其块金系数分别为37.7％和26.4％,4种养分均有中等程度的空间相关性.各向异性和趋势性分析均显示,有机质和速效磷具有较强的各向异性,碱解氮和速效钾的各向同性范围最广.研究区4种养分的空间分布格局在海拔和坡度的影响下呈现出一定的规律性,低值均在坡度较大的中北部出现,东北部和南部较平缓区域出现高值.     

Soil Test,Aerial Image and Yield Data as Inputs for Site-specific Fertility and Hybrid Management Under Maize

Several potential sources of information exist to support precision management of crop inputs. This study evaluated soil test data, bare-soil remote sensing imagery and yield monitor information for their potential contributions to precision management of maize (Zea mays L.). Data were collected from five farmer-managed fields in Central New York in 1999, 2000, and 2001. Geostatistical techniques were used to analyze the spatial structure of soil fertility (pH, P, K, NO₃ and organic matter content) and yield variables (yield, hybrid response and N fertilization response), while remote sensing imagery was processed using principal component analysis. Geographic information system (GIS) spatial data processing and correlation analyses were used to evaluate relationships in the data. Organic matter content, pH, P, and K were highly consistent over time and showed high to moderate levels of spatial autocorrelation, suggesting that grid soil sampling at 2.5–5.5ha scale may be used as a basis for defining fertility management zones. Soil nitrate levels were strongly influenced by seasonal weather conditions and showed low potential for site-specific N management. Aerial image data were correlated to soil organic matter content and in some cases to yield, mainly through the effect of drainage patterns. Aerial image data were not well correlated with soil fertility indicators, and therefore were not useful for defining fertility management zones. Yield response to hybrid selection and nitrogen fertilization rates were highly variable among years, and showed little justification for site-specific management. In conclusion, we recommend grid-based management of lime, P, and K, but no justification existed within our limited study area for site-specific N or hybrid management.     

Soil Nutrient Relationships with Topography as Influenced by Crop

Variable-rate fertilizer application is often based on grid soil sample data from a single year of data in an annual crop rotation. The objectives of this study were to determine if crop history influences spatial dependence (the degree of spatial variability) of nutrients in a rotation including both annual crops and alfalfa, and to compare grid-based and topography-based sampling strategies for representing within-field nutrient levels. A site in the Red River Valley of North Dakota was observed over three years from 1994–1996. The site was divided into one field of continuous alfalfa (Medica sativa L.) and an adjacent field seeded to spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in 1994, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in 1995 and alfalfa in 1996. Samples were taken from a 16.2-ha site each fall in a 33-m grid and analyzed for NO₃-N, P, SO₄-S and Cl. Topography was determined by measuring elevation in a 33-m grid with a laser-surveying device. Spatial dependence was determined by calculating the semivariogram and using regression analysis to assess the relationship between the semivariogram and the semivariogram model. Spatial dependence of NO₃-N and P was strongest following spring wheat and barley, while spatial dependence for SO₄-S and C1 was strongest for vigorous stands of alfalfa. When the continuous alfalfa stand declined following winter kill, NO₃-N and P spatial dependence intensified. Topography based sampling was correlated with the 33-m grid by giving each 33-m sampling location its value as directed by a topography sampling, then correlating that topography based value with the original 33-m sampling value. Topography-based sampling was correlated with the 33-m sampling grid for all nutrients following spring wheat and barley, but not in continuous alfalfa until the stand began to decline in vigor. Following alfalfa seeding in the annual crop field, topography relationships with NO₃-N and P decreased, while topography relationships with SO₄-S and Cl increased. Topography samplings of sulfate-S and chloride were most highly correlated to 33-m grid values in vigorous alfalfa. Lack of NO₃-N spatial dependence in the vigorous alfalfa stands suggests that a composite or field average soil test might be sufficient to provide soil NO₃-N information under similar conditions.     

Optimised Spatial Sampling Scheme for Soil Electriclal Conductivity Based on Variance Quad-Tree （VQT） Method

The acquisition of precise soil data representative of the entire survey area,is a critical issue for many treatments such as irrigation or fertilization in precision agriculture.The aim of this study was to investigate the spatial variability of soil bulk electrical conductivity(ECb)in a coastal saline field and design an optimized spatial sampling scheme of ECb based on a sampling design algorithm,the variance quad-tree(VQT)method.Soil ECb data were collected from the field at 20m interval in a regular grid scheme.The smooth contour map of the whole field was obtained by ordinary kriging interpolation,VQT algorithm was then used to split the smooth contour map into strata of different number desired,the sampling locations can be selected within each stratum in subsequent sampling.The result indicated that the probability of choosing representative sampling sites was increased significantly by using VQT method with the sampling number being greatly reduced compared to grid sampling design while retaining the same prediction accuracy.The advantage of the VQT method is that this scheme samples sparsely in fields where the spatial variability is relatively uniform and more intensive where the variability is large.Thus the sampling efficiency can be improved,hence facilitate an assessment methodology that can be applied in a rapid,practical and cost-effective manner.     

湖北省粮食主产区土壤养分的空间变异性研究

利用"网格"取样、土壤养分状况系统研究法和GIS技术探讨了湖北省粮食主产区3个自然村土壤养分的空间变异特性.结果表明,pH值和有机质相对稳定,在整个研究区域其变异较小,近似于正态分布,施肥元素的变异则较大,表现出明显的负偏峰分布特征;土壤有效P、K和Zn等重要施肥元素的空间变异主要是受土壤利用方式和施肥水平等随机因素的影响,同时其缺乏又更多地出现在水田中.     

应用地理信息系统研究土壤养分变异

采用网格取样,应用土壤养分系统法,结合地理信息系统(GIS)、全球定位系统(GPS)技术,研究了分散经营条件下村级尺度土壤养分空间变异。结果表明,研究区土壤养分普遍分布不均,存在着变异,土壤养分N,P和有机质的变异较大,与氮磷化肥和有机肥的投入有密切关系;Ca,Mg,K,Cu,Fe,Mn等养分土壤变异表现相对较小。     

土壤养分变异及合理取样数的初步研究

利用地统计学方法、地理信息技术对土壤养分变异及合理取样数做了初步研究.结果表明大部分土壤养分都具有良好的半方差结构及强烈的空间相关性.统计分析结果表明土壤养分变异越大,相应要达到一定精确度的取样数量也会增大,研究区域各种养分变异系数大小及其取样数量的排列顺序基本一致,为速效磷>全氮>碱解氮>有机质>速效钾. 用纯随机取样法初步探讨了研究区域土壤养分合理取样数.速效磷取样以90;置信水平20;相对误差为宜,取样数量为4个;速效钾取样以10;相对误差为宜,取样数量为5个;碱解性氮取样以20;相对误差为宜,取样数量为1个;有机质取样以10;相对误差为宜,取样数量为5个;全氮取样以10;相对误差为宜,取样数量为14个.     

Estimating Average and Proportional Variograms of Soil Properties and Their Potential Use in Precision Agriculture

Precision Agriculture requires a method of gathering information about the spatial variability of soil that reduces the need for expensive and intensive sampling. This can be achieved through the use of what we term average and proportional variograms. A literature search has enabled the gathering of variograms for multiple soil properties, allowing comparison of the magnitude of variability and the construction of averages. For soil properties that display proportionality between their mean squared and variance, the variogram can be predicted from a mean value. These average and proportional variograms are potentially beneficial to implementers of Precision Agriculture as they can be used to plan optimal soil sampling and management schemes. It was found that if wishing to implement site-specific management to a resolution of 20×20 m then grid soil sampling will generally have to be performed at 20–30 m intervals depending on the attribute of interest. A decision-support chart for differential soil management based on a variogram's comparative magnitude to the average is presented. Further work needs to be done on increasing the data base these results are based on and refining the proportional variogram parameters to site-specificity.