Sodium Application Enhances DDT Transformation in a Long-Term Contaminated Soil

Bioremediation is an economically attractive option to remediate soil contaminated with DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] and other organochlorine pesticides. However, lack of DDT bioavailability in soil presents one major obstacle to this technology particularly in soils that have been contaminated for long periods. In this work, sodium ion (Na⁺) was applied to a long-term DDT contaminated soil as Na⁺ is known to disperse clays, which would potentially release and/or expose physically protected DDT thereby enhancing DDT bioavailability. Sodium ion addition significantly increased dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels, anaerobic bacterial numbers and the amount of DDT residues measured in soil solution. DDT transformation ranged from 95% (30—80 mg Na⁺ kg^-1 soil) to 72% (no Na⁺ added) with the optimum level of DDT transformation occurring at 30 mg Na⁺ kg^-1 soil. Higher Na⁺ levels repressed DDT transformation and this appeared to be related to lower DOC levels and flocculation of soils. The anaerobic incubation conditions employed (high water content) prevented DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene] production and DDD [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane] was the major breakdown product formed. Overall it appeared that Na⁺ has potential as a cheap and safe alternative to surfactants as a method for increasing DDT transformation in contaminated soil.     

DDT Resistance and Transformation by Different Microbial Strains Isolated from DDT-Contaminated Soils and Compost Materials

Bioremediation is a potential option to treat 1, 1, 1-trichloro-2, 2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT) contaminated sites. In areas where suitable microbes are not present, the use of DDT resistant microbial inoculants may be necessary. It is vital that such inoculants do not produce recalcitrant breakdown products e.g. 1, 1-dichloro-2, 2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethylene (DDE). Therefore, this work aimed to screen DDT-contaminated soil and compost materials for the presence of DDT-resistant microbes for use as potential inoculants. Four compost amended soils, contaminated with different concentrations of DDT, were used to isolate DDT-resistant microbes in media containing 150 mg l^?1 DDT at three temperatures (25, 37 and 55°C). In all soils, bacteria were more sensitive to DDT than actinomycetes and fungi. Bacteria isolated at 55°C from any source were the most DDT sensitive. However DDT-resistant bacterial strains showed more promise in degrading DDT than isolated fungal strains, as 1, 1-dichloro 2, 2-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDD) was a major bacterial transformation product, while fungi tended to produce more DDE. Further studies on selected bacterial isolates found that the most promising bacterial strain (Bacillus sp. BHD-4) could remove 51% of DDT from liquid culture after 7 days growth. Of the amount transformed, 6% was found as DDD and 3% as DDE suggesting that further transformation of DDT and its metabolites occurred.     

Remediation of Organochlorine Pesticide-Contaminated Soils by Surfactant-Enhanced Washing Combined with Activated Carbon Selective Adsorption

Remediation of organochlorine pesticide (OCP)-contaminated soils is urgently required especially in China. The present study investigated the removal of OCPs from two soils by triton X-100 (TX-100)-enhanced washing coupled with powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption treatment of the solution. Two contaminated soils, including a silt clay contaminated with chlordene, 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethanes (DDDs), and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and a sandy loam containing chlordanes and mirex, were selected. Effects of varied operating parameters, including TX-100 dosage, liquid/soil (L/S) ratio, and extraction time, on the contaminant removal were examined. For both soils, OCP removal was clearly enhanced with increasing TX-100 in extraction solution and L/S ratio. Meanwhile, the removal efficacy was also impacted by soil texture and characteristics and contents of the contaminants. Moreover, by using PAC as an absorbent, a significant decrease in the contaminants in the extraction solutions was detected, and TX-100 could be further reused. Our investigation suggests that surfactant-enhanced washing combined with activated carbon selective adsorption would be an alternative to remediate OCP-contaminated soils.     

Uptake of SigmaDDT, arsenic, cadmium, copper, and lead by lettuce and radish grown in contaminated horticultural soils

Horticultural soils can contain elevated concentrations of selected trace elements and organochlorine pesticides as a result of long-term use of agrichemicals and soil amendments. A glasshouse study was undertaken to assess the uptake of weathered SigmaDDT {sum of the p, p'- and o, p-isomers of DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2- bis( p-chlorophenyl)ethane], DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2- bis( p-chlorophenyl)ethylene] and DDD[1,1-dichloro-2,2- bis( p-chlorophenyl)ethane]}, arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) residues by lettuce ( Lactuca sativa) and radish ( Raphanus sativus) from field-aged New Zealand horticultural soils. Concentrations of SigmaDDT, DDT, DDE, Cd, Cu, and Pb in lettuce increased with increasing soil concentrations. In radish, similar relationships were observed for SigmaDDT, DDE, and Cu. The bioaccumulation factors were less than 1 with the exception of Cd and decreased with increasing soil concentrations. Lettuce Cd concentrations for plants grown on four out of 10 assayed soils were equivalent to or exceeded the New Zealand food standard for leafy vegetables of 0.1 mg kg (-1) fresh weight. Concentrations of As, Pb, and SigmaDDT did not exceed available food standards. Overall, these results demonstrate that aged residues of SigmaDDT, As, Cd, Cu, and Pb in horticultural soils have remained phytoavailable. To be protective of human health, site-specific risk assessments and soil guideline derivations for residential settings with vegetable gardens need to consider the produce consumption pathway.     

Mapping the distribution of DDT residues as DDE in the soils of the irrigated regions of northern New South Wales,Australia using ELISA and GIS

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) specific for DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene] has been used to map DDT [1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane)] residues in the top 10 cm of soil in three river valleys of northern New South Wales, Australia. Despite being almost 20 years since DDT was last applied for cotton growing in these areas, the relationship between sites of greatest application and current residue levels was strong. DDE concentrations in the range 0-2 ppm were found, although most the 389 soil samples examined contained less than 0.2 ppm of DDE. Although some relationship between mode of land use and current residue levels was apparent, this varied from valley to valley and may have reflected different farming practices and times of application. The study demonstrates that the combination of ELISA and geographical information system (GIS) analysis provides an effective means of displaying levels of soil contamination by a pesticide and the possible need for remediation.     

Inhibitory effects of the total and water-soluble concentrations of nine different metals on the dehydrogenase activity of a loess soil

 This study focuses on a comparison of the microbial toxicity of nine metals, including As as a metalloid and two species of Cr. A loess soil [Ap horizon, clay 15.2%, organic C 1.12%, pH(CaCl₂) 7.02] was spiked with 8–12 geometrically increasing doses of the metals. The dehydrogenase assay (2-p-iodophenyl-3-p-nitrophenyl-5-phenyltetrazoliumchloride method) was combined with sorption and solubility experiments. The resulting dose-response curves and sorption isotherms were used to derive total doses that caused definite percentage inhibitions [i.e. effective doses (ED) causing a 10–90% reduction in dehydrogenase activity (dha)] as well as the corresponding toxic solution concentrations causing the same reductions in dha (i.e. effective concentrations; EC₁₀–EC₉₀). Based on total doses, the toxicity decreased in the following order with ED₅₀ values (mg kg^–1) given in brackets: Hg (2.0)>Cu (35)>Cr(VI) (71)>Cr(III) (75)>Cd (90)>Ni (100)>Zn (115)>As (168)>Co (582)>Pb (652). With regard to solution concentrations, toxicity decreased in the order (EC₅₀ in mg l^–1): Hg (0.003)>Pb (0.04)>Cu (0.05)>Cd (0.14)>Zn (0.19)>Cr(III) (0.62)>Ni (0.69)>Co (30.6)>As (55.5)>Cr(VI) (78.1). The retention of the metals by the soil differed strongly. Pb, Cu, and Hg exhibited the highest and Ni, As, and Cr(VI) the lowest sorption constants (Freundlich K values: 2455, 724, 348, 93, 13, and 0.06 mg kg^–1, respectively). The sorptivity of the metals and their microbial toxicity in the aqueous phase were characteristically related: metals with a strong toxic action in the soil solution were adsorbed by the soil to a high degree and vice versa. Therefore, especially for metals with a high inherent toxicity, sorption is an effective way of immobilizing them and temporarily detoxifying soil. Received: 2 July 1998     

Ferrous ions accelerate sulfide-induced abiotic dechlorination of DDT in waterlogged paddy soil and in soil solution

Purpose  

Abiotic dechlorination of organochlorine pollutants seems to occur more efficiently in nature than previously thought. Ferrous (Fe²⁺) and sulfide (S²⁻) ions have been shown to be effective dechlorinating reagents. However, little is known about the interactions between Fe²⁺ and S²⁻ during dechlorination of 1,1,1-trichoro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-ethane (DDT) in soil, in spite of the fact that these ions co-exist in waterlogged soils.     

Accumulation of zinc and its effects on the growth, reproduction and life cycle of Drawida willsi (Oligochaeta), a dominant earthworm in Indian crop fields

 Accumulation of Zn and its effects on the growth, reproduction and life cycle of the earthworm Drawida willsi were determined. D. willsi did not reveal any significant changes in their mass at any of the concentrations of Zn (50, 200 and 400 mg kg^–1) compared to in untreated soils. The Zn concentrations in the exposed earthworms were significantly increased, but they were able to regulate their body content of Zn within a range of 116–125 mg kg^–1 (dry wt) in 200–400 mg kg^–1 Zn-treated soil. Reproduction was significantly reduced when the Zn concentration in soil exceeded 200 mg kg^–1. The drop in reproduction at elevated concentrations of Zn apparently resulted in a delay in completion of the life cycle and a decline in the total population. Received: 9 September 1998     

肯尼亚水稻土和甘蔗地土壤中~(14)C-六氯苯和~(14)C-滴滴涕的自然消解

氯代持久性有机污染物的农田土壤污染呈现污染浓度低、面积大、新源污染不断输入的特点。农田土壤本身微生物种类丰富,对氯代有机污染物具有较大的降解潜力和未知性。本试验以典型高氯代和低氯代持久性有机污染物——六氯苯(HCB)和滴滴涕(DDT)为研究对象,结合~(14)C同位素示踪技术,研究HCB和DDT在热带水稻土和甘蔗地土壤的矿化现象,同时监测HCB和DDT在两种土壤中的挥发、降解产物以及结合残留。结果表明,经84 d好氧培养,HCB和DDT在两种土壤中的矿化量分别仅为0.14%和3%,低氯代有机污染物DDT的矿化速率显著高于高氯代有机污染物HCB。然而,两种土壤对HCB或DDT的矿化没有显著性差异。HCB或DDT在水稻土中的挥发量略微高于甘蔗地土壤,两种土壤中HCB和DDT的挥发量在0.1%~0.6%之间,表明挥发不是其主要的环境过程。在DDT污染水稻土和甘蔗地土壤中添加1.25%的堆肥增加了DDT在土壤中的矿化与结合残留,减少了DDT的挥发。本研究结果表明土壤在好氧条件下对氯代持久性有机污染物的自然消解能力非常弱,而有机肥的使用有助于土壤中持久性氯代有机污染物的矿化消除。     

Nitrogen and phosphorus uptake by maize as affected by particulate organic matter quality, soil characteristics, and land-use history for soils from the West African moist savanna zone

 The impact of land use (unfertilized continuous maize cropping, unfertilized and fertilized alley cropping with maize, Gliricidia sepium tree fallow, natural fallow) on the soil organic matter (SOM) status and general soil fertility characteristics were investigated for a series of soils representative for the West African moist savanna zone. Three soils from the humid forest zone were also included. In an associated pot experiment, relationships between maize N and P uptake and SOM and general soil characteristics were developed. Soils under natural fallow contained the highest amount of organic C (1.72%), total N (0.158%), and had the highest effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) [8.9 mEq 100 g^–1 dry soil], while the Olsen P content was highest in the fertilized alley cropping plots (13.7 mg kg^–1) and lowest under natural fallow (6.3 mg kg^–1). The N concentration of the particulate organic matter (POM) was highest in the unfertilized alley cropping plots (2.4%), while the total POM N content was highest under natural fallow (370 mg N kg^–1) and lowest in continuously cropped plots (107 mg N kg^–1). After addition of all nutrients except N, a highly significant linear relationship (R ²=0.91) was observed between the total N uptake in the shoots and roots of 7-week-old maize and the POM N content for the savanna soils. POM in the humid forest soils was presumably protected from decomposition due to its higher silt and clay content. After addition of all nutrients except P, the total maize P uptake was linearly related to the Olsen P content. R ² increased from 0.56 to 0.67 in a multiple linear regression analysis including the Olsen P content and clay content (which explained 11% of the variation in P uptake). Both the SOM status and N availability were shown to be improved in land-use systems with organic matter additions, while only the addition of P fertilizer could improve P availability. Received: 9 April 1999     

水稻对土壤中DDT及其系列降解物的吸收

在温室条件下,盆栽种植水稻(Oryza sativa,淹水土壤),设老化态DDT残留和新施入DDT两种处理,生长期126 d。研究结果显示:老化残留DDT在土壤中降解十分缓慢,而新施入DDT在土壤中降解相当迅速,GC/MS鉴定结果表明,降解物除DDD外,还有DDMS和DDMU。尽管土壤中老化残留的降解受到明显抑制,但水稻根系仍可吸收利用并向地上组织传输,因此不可低估老化残留的生物有效性。在新施入DDT的处理中,水稻根系对DDD的吸收量高达900 ng g-1,不过,根系向地上部组织传输DDX的能力极为有限。值得注意的是:水稻根系对土壤中DDMS和DDMU吸收的生物富集因子为DDD或DDE的3倍,表明DDMU和DDMS具有较母体化合物更为突出的作物可吸收利用性。DDX各组分从水稻根系向地上组织传输时,其分布状况发生了明显的变化,引起这种变化的主要原因是作物在吸收和传输DDX时具有一定的选择性,或者DDX在这种吸收和传输过程中发生了进一步的降解。     

Mineralization and denitrification in upland, nearly saturated and flooded subtropical soil II. Effect of organic manures varying in N content and C:N ratio

 Nitrogen and carbon mineralization of cattle manure (N=6 g kg^–1; C:N=35), pressmud (N=17.4 g kg^–1; C:N=22), green manure (N=26.8 g kg^–1; C:N=14) and poultry manure (N=19.5 g kg^–1; C:N=12) and their influence on gaseous N losses via denitrification (using the acetylene inhibition technique) in a semiarid subtropical soil (Typic Ustochrepts) were investigated in a growth chamber simulating upland, nearly saturated, and flooded conditions. Mineralization of N started quickly in all manures, except pressmud where immobilization of soil mineral N was observed for an initial 4 days. Accumulation of mineral N in upland soil plus denitrified N revealed that mineralization of cattle manure-, pressmud-, poultry manure- and green manure-N over 16 days was 12, 20, 29 and 44%, respectively, and was inversely related to C:N ratio (R ²=0.703, P=0.05) and directly to N content of organic manure (R ²=0.964, P=0.01). Manure-C mineralized over 16 days ranged from 6% to 50% in different manures added to soil under different moisture regimes and was, in general, inversely related to initial C:N ratio of manure (R ²=0.690, P=0.05). Cumulative denitrification losses over 16 days in control soils (without manure) under upland, nearly saturated, and flooded conditions were 5, 23, and 24 mg N kg^–1, respectively. Incorporation of manures enhanced denitrification losses by 60-82% in upland, 52–163% in nearly saturated, and 26–107% in flooded soil conditions over a 16-day period, demonstrating that mineralized N and C from added manures could result in 2- to 3-fold higher rate of denitrification. Cumulative denitrification losses were maximal with green manure, followed by poultry manure, pressmud and cattle manure showing an increase in denitrification with increasing N content and decreasing C:N ratio of manure. Manure-amended nearly saturated soils supported 14–35% greater denitrification than flooded soils due to greater mineralization and supply of C.     

Land use affects the distribution of soil inorganic nitrogen in smallholder production systems in Kenya

 We hypothesized that the integration of trees and shrubs in agricultural landscapes can reduce NO₃ ^– leaching and increase utilization of subsoil N. A field survey was conducted on 14 farms on acid soils in the subhumid highlands of Kenya, where there is little use of fertilizers, to determine the effect of vegetation types (VT) on soil NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^– to 4 m depth. The VT included maize (Zea mays) with poor growth and good growth, Markhamia lutea trees scattered in maize, natural weed fallow, banana (Musa spp.), hedgerow, and eucalyptus woodlot. The effect of VT on NH₄ ⁺ was small (<1 mg N kg^–1). NO₃ ^– within a VT was about constant with depth below 0.25 m, but subsoil NO₃ ^– varied greatly among VT. Mean NO₃ ^–-N concentrations at 0.5–4 m depth were low beneath hedgerow and woodlot (<0.2 mg kg^–1), intermediate beneath weed fallow (0.2–0.7 mg kg^–1), banana (0.5–1.0 mg kg^–1) and markhamia (0.5–1.6 mg kg^–1), and high beneath both poor (1.0–2.1 mg kg^–1) and good (1.9–3.1 mg kg^–1) maize. Subsoil NO₃ ^– (0.5–4 m) was agronomically significant after maize harvest with 37 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth of subsoil beneath good maize and 27 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth beneath poor maize. In contrast, subsoil NO₃ ^– was only 2 kg N ha^–1 m^–1 depth beneath woodlot and hedgerow. These results demonstrate that the integration of perennial vegetation and the rotation of annual and perennial crops can tighten N cycling in agricultural landscapes. Received: 8 July 1999     

Mineralization and denitrification in upland, nearly saturated and flooded subtropical soil I. Effect of nitrate and ammoniacal nitrogen

 The influence of fertilizer N applied through nitrate and ammoniacal sources on the availability of nitrate, supply of C, and gaseous N losses via denitrification (using acetylene inhibition technique) in a semiarid subtropical soil (Typic Ustochrepts) was investigated in a growth chamber simulating upland [60% water-filled pore space (WFPS)], nearly saturated (90% WFPS), and flooded (120% WFPS) conditions. The rate of denitrification was very low in the upland soil conditions, irrespective of fertilizer N treatments. Increasing water content to nearly saturated and flooded conditions resulted in four- to sixfold higher rates of denitrification within 2 days, suggesting that the denitrifying activity commences quickly. Results of this study reveal that (1) under restricted aeration, these soils could support high rates of denitrification (∼6 mg N kg^–1 day^–1) for short periods when nitrate is present; (2) application of fertilizer N as nitrate enhances N losses via denitrification (∼10 mg N kg^–1 day^–1) – however, the supply of available C determines the intensity and duration of denitrification; (3) when fertilizer N is applied as an ammoniacal form, nitrification proceeds slowly and nitrate availability limits denitrification in flooded soil; (4) the nearly saturated soil, being partially aerobic, supported greater nitrification of applied ammoniacal fertilizer N than flooded soil resulting in higher relative rates of denitrification; and (5) under aerobic soil conditions, 26 mg mineral N kg^–1 accumulated in control soil over a 16-day period, demonstrating a modest capacity of such semiarid subtropical soils, low in organic matter, to supply N to growing plants. Received: 7 June 1999     

Mineralization of organic sulfur and its importance as a reservoir of plant-available sulfur in upland soils of north China

 An open incubation technique was used to measure S mineralization in a range of upland soils of north China. Six mineralization patterns were examined, and a soil S-exhaustion experiment with ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum L.) was conducted to investigate the availability of various organic S pools to plants. For all of the 12 soils tested, the release of S as SO₄ ^2– was curvilinear with time, and during a 28-week incubation at 30  °C the amount of S mineralized ranged from 14.0 mg S kg^–1 soil to 37.4 mg S kg^–1 soil. A first-order model and Gompertz model appeared to best describe S mineralization. Examination of the soils after incubation revealed the bulk of the mineralized S was mainly derived from the C-bonded S pool, while the majority of mineralized S under soil S exhaustion by ryegrass was derived from the HI-reducible S pool. Received: 9 July 1998     

Arsenic-contaminated soils phytotoxicity studies with sunflower and sorghum

Background, Aim and Scope  Environmental pollution caused by arsenic (As) is a major ecological problem. There has been intense worldwide effort to find As-hyperaccumulating plants that can be used in phytoremediation—the green-plant-assisted removal of chemical pollutants from soils. For phytoremediation, it is natural to prefer cultivated rather than wild plants, because their agriculture is well known. This study was conducted to evaluate the tolerance of common sunflower(Helianthus annuus L.) and sugar sorghum(Sorghum saccharatum Pers.) for soil-As contents of 10–100 mg As kg^-1 soil, with sodium arsenite as a model contaminant. Methods  Plants were grown in a growth chamber for 30 days. Microfield experiments were conducted on experimental plots. To study the phytoremediation effect of the auxins indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), we treated 1- and 3-day-old plant seedlings with water solutions of the auxins (concentrations 10^-5, 10^-7, and 10^-9 g l^-1). The soil and plant-biomass samples were analyzed for total As by using the color reaction of ammonium molybdate with As. Results and Discussion  Phytotoxicity studies showed that 100 mg As kg^-1 soil poisoned sunflower and sorghum growth by 50%. There was a linear correlation between soil-As content and As accumulation in the plants. Laboratory experiments showed that the soil-As content was reduced two- to threefold after sunflower had been grown with 10–100 mg As kg^-1 soil for 30 days. Treatment of sunflower and sorghum seedlings with IAA and 2,4-D at a concentration of 10^-5 g l^-1 in microfield experiments enhanced the phytoremediation two- to fivefold as compared with untreated control plants. The best results were obtained with 3-day-old seedlings. Conclusion, Recommendation and Outlook  (a) Sunflower and sorghum are good candidates to remediate As-polluted soils. (b) Phytoremediation can be improved with IAA or 2,4-D. (c) Mixed cropping of sorghum and sunflower may be another way of improving phytoremediation.     

Effect of long-term liquid pig manure application on atrazine mineralization in a soil cultivated with maize

Soil samples were collected in plots from a field experiment in maize monoculture receiving 0, 60 and 120 m³ ha^-1 liquid pig manure (LPM) for 19 years. Soils were sampled from the 0- to 20-cm layer in August and October 1997 and in June, July and September 1998. Subsurface samples were also evaluated in September 1998. Laboratory soil radiorespirometry was used to evaluate atrazine mineralization using [U-ring-¹⁴C]-atrazine mixed with commercially available product. The effect of atrazine dose (50, 100 and 500 mg atrazine kg^-1 soil) was evaluated on soils sampled in August 1997. For the other sampling dates, the soils were spiked with 50 mg atrazine kg^-1 soil. No LPM dose effect on atrazine mineralization was obtained in the different experiments. Increasing atrazine dose to 500 mg kg^-1 decreased significantly the mineralization rate (R_i) and the maximum of atrazine mineralized (MAX), while the time needed to mineralize 50% of MAX (DT-50%) was not significantly affected. Sampling time had a significant effect on atrazine mineralization. Atrazine mineralization in the soils sampled in June 1998 showed lower R_i and MAX than in the soils sampled at the other dates. Atrazine mineralization in subsurface soils (20–60 cm) was very variable and quite high in some samples. This may be due to atrazine pre-exposure in subsoils resulting from atrazine deep movement by preferential flow.     

Influence of the presence of nitrite and nitrate in soil on maize biomass production, nitrogen immobilization and nitrogen recovery

 When comparing nitrite (NO₂ ^–) and nitrate (NO₃ ^–) toxicity to maize (Zea mays L.) growth, it is important to know the fate of applied nitrogen (N). A pot experiment, using potassium nitrite (K¹⁵NO₂) and potassium nitrate (K¹⁵NO₃) was conducted to determine the fate of N (0, 75, 150, and 225 mg N kg^–1 soil) applied to a sandy loam soil collected from Gistel (Belgium). The total dry weight of the plants treated with NO₂ ^– was lower than that of the plants treated with NO₃ ^– at 15 and 26 days after N application (harvest 1 and harvest 2, respectively). Shoot and root biomass reduction started at a relatively low NO₂ ^– application rate (75 mg NO₂ ^–-N kg^–1). Biomass reduction increased, at both harvests with increasing amounts of NO₂ ^– to more than 55% at the highest application rate (225 mg NO₃ ^–-N kg^–1). In the NO₃ ^– treatment, a reduction of 16% in total plant dry biomass was recorded only at the highest application rate (225 mg NO₂ ^–-N kg^–1), at both harvest times. The ¹⁵N plant uptake (shoots plus roots) at harvest 1 decreased with increasing N application rates of both N forms (KNO₂ and KNO₃). Twenty-six days after the N application, the total ¹⁵N taken up by the plant increased in all treatments in comparison with 15 days after the N application. However, only at higher rates of N application (150 and 225 mg N kg^–1) was the ¹⁵N uptake by the NO₂ ^– fed plants significantly lower than by the NO₃ ^– fed plants. The percentage of immobilized N from the applied N was low (0–17.7%) at both harvests, irrespective of the N source. However, with relatively low N application rates (75 mg N kg^–1), the immobilized N in the soil decreased with time. This may be due to the re-mineralization of the applied N. The percentage of inorganic ¹⁵N in the soil in NO₂ ^– treatments was slightly lower than in equivalent doses of NO₃ ^–. This might be due to higher losses of N as N-oxides. Unaccounted for N from the applied N ranged from 21% to 52% for the NO₂ ^– treatments and from 3% to 38% for the NO₃ ^– treatments. Received: 17 July 1997     

Salinity and sodicity effects on respiration and microbial biomass of soil

An understanding of the effects of salinity and sodicity on soil carbon (C) stocks and fluxes is critical in environmental management, as the areal extents of salinity and sodicity are predicted to increase. The effects of salinity and sodicity on the soil microbial biomass (SMB) and soil respiration were assessed over 12weeks under controlled conditions by subjecting disturbed soil samples from a vegetated soil profile to leaching with one of six salt solutions; a combination of low-salinity (0.5dSm⁻¹), mid-salinity (10dSm⁻¹), or high-salinity (30dSm⁻¹), with either low-sodicity (sodium adsorption ratio, SAR, 1), or high-sodicity (SAR 30) to give six treatments: control (low-salinity low-sodicity); low-salinity high-sodicity; mid-salinity low-sodicity; mid-salinity high-sodicity; high-salinity low-sodicity; and high-salinity high-sodicity. Soil respiration rate was highest (56–80mg CO₂-C kg⁻¹ soil) in the low-salinity treatments and lowest (1–5mg CO₂-C kg⁻¹ soil) in the mid-salinity treatments, while the SMB was highest in the high-salinity treatments (459–565mg kg⁻¹ soil) and lowest in the low-salinity treatments (158–172mg kg⁻¹ soil). This was attributed to increased substrate availability with high salt concentrations through either increased dispersion of soil aggregates or dissolution or hydrolysis of soil organic matter, which may offset some of the stresses placed on the microbial population from high salt concentrations. The apparent disparity in trends in respiration and the SMB may be due to an induced shift in the microbial population, from one dominated by more active microorganisms to one dominated by less active microorganisms.     

Microwave irradiation of soil for routine measurement of microbial biomass carbon

 Microwave irradiation was evaluated as a non-toxic alternate to chloroform fumigation for routine measurement of soil microbial biomass C. Microwave energy was applied to moist soil to disrupt microbial cells. The flush of C released was then measured after extraction or incubation. Microwave irradiation at 800 J g^–1 soil was optimal because this level resulted in an almost instantaneous rise in soil temperature (≥80  °C), an abrupt reduction in microbial activity, maximal release of biomass C, and minimal solubilization of humic substances. Both incubation-CO₂ titration and extraction-colorimetry methods were used on separate 20-g subsamples to compare the labile C in the microwave-treated and untreated soil samples. The incubation-titration method was also used to measure C in chloroform-fumigated soil samples. Averaged across soils, the chloroform fumigation yielded 123.3±5.1 mg CO₂-C kg^–1. Microwave irradiation yielded 93.6±3.9 mg CO₂-C kg^–1 soil determined by incubation and 52.4±2.4 mg C kg^–1 soil determined by extraction, accounting for 76% and 42% of the net flush of C measured by the chloroform fumigation. Microwave-stimulated net flushes of C were correlated closely (r ²=0.974 for incubation or 0.908 for extraction) with microbial biomass C measured by the chloroform fumigation. Little correlation was found with the total soil organic C (r ²=0.241 for incubation or for 0.166 extraction). Mean efficiency factors for incubation (K _MI) or extraction (K _ME) were used to calculate microbial biomass C from net flushes of C between microwaved and unmicrowaved soils. Values of K _MI and K _ME were not affected by soil pH, bulk density or clay contents. Extraction of microwaved soil by 0.5M K₂SO₄ proved to be a simple, fast, precise, reliable, and safe method to measure soil microbial biomass C. Received: 12 September 1997