Echocardiography of the normal bovine heart: technique and ultrasonographic appearance

Fifty-one clinically healthy cows were examined ultrasonographically from the third and fourth intercostal spaces on both sides of the thorax. A 3.0 MHz transducer was used and the heart was examined in the caudal long, caudal short and cranial long axes on the right side, and in the caudal and cranial long axes on the left side. In each position the optimal transducer orientation and the images of the structures were recorded. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the right (transducer positioned at the fourth intercostal space), all four chambers were visible with the transducer positioned 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the level of the olecranon. The left ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the aortic valve and ascending aorta, were visible in the same position with the transducer rotated 10 to 40 degrees clockwise. In the caudal short axis view of the heart on the right, the left and right ventricles were visible in cross-section with the transducer held at right angles to the ribs in the fourth intercostal space, 3 to 6 cm dorsal to the olecranon and tipped slightly dorsally. In the cranial long axis view of the heart on the right, the right ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the pulmonary valve and pulmonary artery, was visible in the third intercostal space, 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the olecranon with the transducer angled craniodorsally and rotated 10 to 20 degrees clockwise. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the left, the left and right ventricles and the left ventricular outflow tract were visible with the transducer placed in the fourth intercostal space. In the cranial long axis view on the left, the right ventricular outflow tract was visible.     

The normal anatomical, radiographical and ultrasonographic appearance of the carpal region of one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius)

The macroscopic, radiographic and ultrasonographic anatomy of the carpal region of eight clinically normal camels (Camelus dromedarius) was determined with the help of a 7.5-MHz linear transducer. At the dorsal aspect of the carpus and distal radius, the extensor carpi radialis, extensor digitorum communis and extensor digitorum lateralis tendons were easily identified. The ulnaris lateralis tendon was observed laterally. The extensor carpi obliqus tendon was identified with difficulty. At the palmar aspect, the flexor carpi radialis, the flexor digitorum superficialis and the flexor digitorum profundus tendons were observed. Other soft structures examined include the lateral collateral ligament and the medial collateral ligament. Ultrasonographic findings correlated with gross anatomy in the dissected limbs. The results of the present study serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of camel carpus.     

In vitro ultrasonographic appearance of the normal and verminous equine aorta, cranial mesenteric artery, and its branches

Ninety-one equine aortic and cranial mesenteric arterial segments were evaluated ultrasonographically in a water bath. On the basis of pathologic evidence of verminous arteritis, arterial segments were classified into 4 categories, and the ultrasonographic characteristics of each group were evaluated. Normal arteries (class 1) were ultrasonographically characterized by a smooth luminal surface layer and uniform wall thickness and echogenicity. Arteries with only histopathologic evidence of verminous arteritis (class 2) were ultrasonographically characterized by a smooth luminal surface layer, uniform hyperechoic luminal layer. Arteries with both gross and histopathologic evidence of verminous arteritis (class 3) were characterized ultrasonographically by an irregular luminal surface layer, varying wall thickness, varying wall echogenicity, and the presence of a hyperechoic luminal layer. The ultrasonographic characteristics of arteries with luminal thrombosis (class 4) were an irregular luminal surface, varying wall thickness, and nonuniform echogenicity.     

Transrectal ultrasonographic examination of the sacroiliac joints of the horse: Technique and normal images

Transrectal ultrasonography of the sacroiliac joints is routinely performed for the diagnosis of the cause of low back pain and lack of power in the hindlimbs. As a result of the localisation of these small joints, performing and interpreting ultrasonographic images requires a good anatomical knowledge. This paper describes an ultrasonographic procedure that allows imaging of the ventral aspect of the sacroiliac joints. A complete screening should be done to evaluate the articular margins. Moreover, the shape of sacral and iliac wings can vary among individuals especially depending on the gender.     

Clinically significant,nontraumatic, degenerative joint disease of the temporomandibular joints in a horse

Horses with degenerative joint disease (DJD) of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) have been reported infrequently, with the majority of cases describing the disease as a consequence of an earlier traumatic event. A case of clinically significant TMJ‐DJD due to a nontraumatic event has not been published. This retrospective case report describes a case of bilateral, DJD of the TMJ. Case management, subsequent review and interpretation of the clinical records, tangential radiographic views of each TMJ, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the head, and post mortem histological examination of the TMJs were performed. The horse exhibited both quidding and a ‘clicking’ sound during mastication; episodes of intermittent colic were also prevalent in the horse's history. Computed tomography illustrated bilateral mineralisation of the rostral aspect of both intra‐articular discs. Treatment, by intra‐articular injection of corticosteroid, resulted in temporary resolution of both the quidding and the ‘clicking’ sound, as well as the recurrent episodes of colic. Repeated treatment over time was required. Ultimately the horse was subjected to euthanasia for reasons other than disease of the TMJ. The development of TMJ‐DJD may not be confined to traumatic events. Age‐related degeneration of this joint may occur and manifest through quidding and abnormal sounds noted during mastication.     

The sacroiliac joints: evaluation using nuclear scintigraphy. Part 1: The normal horse

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Sacroiliac (SI) disease is recognised as a cause of poor hindlimb action but differential diagnosis is often difficult. HYPOTHESES: That in clinically normal horses there would be a significant difference in the ratio of radiopharmaceutical uptake (RU) between the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5) and each tuber sacrale (TS) and between L5 and each SI joint; and that these ratios would alter with age, but ratios would be bilaterally symmetrical. METHODS: Dorsal scintigraphic images of the SI region of 15 horses, selected randomly from the clinic database, were analysed by 2 of the authors, comparing noncorrected and motion-corrected images. To determine scintigraphic anatomy, the scintigraphic images of 10 Thoroughbred horses were superimposed over a ventrodorsal radiographic image of an isolated pelvis. Dorsal scintigraphic images of 40 clinically normal horses age 3-16 years were evaluated using subjective examination, profile analysis and quantification using regions of interest. RESULTS: The tubera sacrale were seen as 2 well-defined oval regions immediately to the left and right of the midline, abaxial to which were larger, approximately oval areas with less RU, representing uptake in the SI joints. The definition between the SI region and the TS was more obvious in younger horses. Nonmotion-corrected images were often not of diagnostic quality or could be misinterpreted as abnormal. There were significant differences in RU between the TS and SI joints compared to L5, and decreased RU in the tubera sacrale with increasing age, but no change of uptake in the SI joint region and no effect of gender on RU. There was a high degree of left-right symmetry of the TS and SI joint regions. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The scintigraphic images of horses with suspected sacroiliac joint disease should be compared with images of normal horses of comparable age. In normal horses, there was a high degree of symmetry; therefore, marked left-right asymmetry is likely to be abnormal.     

The ultrasonographic appearance of renal medullary striations and their association with renal disease and renal histopathology in domestic cats

Medullary striations (MS) have been anecdotally observed on ultrasound of feline kidneys; however, their significance is unknown. Aims of this retrospective, case control, pilot study were to describe the appearance, prevalence, and clinicopathological correlates of MS in a referral feline population. Still images from 1247 feline abdominal ultrasound studies performed between 2011 and 2021 were reviewed. Cats with MS were identified and compared with age-matched controls. Serum urea, creatinine, calcium, phosphate, and calcium-phosphate-product, plus urine specific gravity, urine protein: creatinine ratio (UPC), prevalence of active sediment (defined as > 5 red (RBC) or white blood cells (WBC) per high-power field) and prevalence of positive urine culture were compared between MS and control groups using the Mann–Whitney U test or Fisher's Exact test. Data are presented as median [range]. 27 cats were identified as having MS, giving a prevalence of 2.2% with a significantly higher proportion being seen in males (P = 0.018). Medullary striation cats had significantly higher UPC values than controls (0.46 [0.16–7.57] vs. 0.16 [0.07–2.27]; P = 0.006). Cats with MS were more likely to have active urinary sediments (39% vs 8%, P = 0.023), but no difference in prevalence of positive urinary cultures was observed between groups. There was no significant difference in other parameters between MS and control cats. Renal histopathology performed in three MS cats revealed focal regions of linear medullary fibrosis. Medullary striations are associated with proteinuria and urinary tract inflammation in cats, which may reflect renal tubular dysfunction and/or inflammation. Hence identification might allow for earlier detection of renal pathology.     

Relationship between ultrasonographic appearance, testicular size, spermatozoal output and testicular lesions in the dog

The ultrasonographic appearance of the dog testis and epididymis was examined in vivo and in vitro. The relationship between specific testicular and epididymal dimensions was studied in normal animals. Assessment of testicular volume using ultrasound compared favourably to the volume calculated by water displacement. The correlation between testicular volume, epididymal cross-sectional area and semen parameters was, however, poor. Changes in the normal testicular architecture were identified in a variety of pathological conditions including testicular cysts and neoplasia.     

Detailed ultrasonographic mapping of the pelvis in clinically normal horses and ponies.

OBJECTIVE: To map the equine pelvis using ultrasonography, validated by use of computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and measurements of frozen cadaver slices. ANIMALS: 6 ponies and 6 horses. PROCEDURE: Ultrasonographic examination of the pelvis was performed on 6 clinically normal ponies. Measurements were obtained for imaged structures. Computed tomography, MRI, and measurements of frozen sections were performed after death and used to verify measurements. Linear regression determined the degree of correlation between measurements obtained ultrasonographically and the other modalities. Six clinically normal horses were then examined by use of ultrasonography. For each structure measured mean, SD, and range were calculated. RESULTS: Data obtained from ponies revealed high correlations between ultrasonographic findings and those of CT, MRI, and frozen section measurements (r2 = 0.97, r2 = 0.99, and r2 = 0.99, respectively). Differences between structures measured on each side of the pelvis were not significant. Variation in size of structures was not associated with weight of horses. A correlation was not found between weight of horses and ponies and size of structure. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Ultrasonography can be used to accurately measure and evaluate the musculoskeletal structures of the pelvis of horses. The use of CT, MRI, and measurements of frozen sections provided a means of validating the ultrasonographic measurements. Reference range values determined in our study can be used to evaluate horses with suspected pelvic disease.     

Anatomy and ultrasonographic appearance of the tympanic bulla and associated structures in the rabbit

Otitis media is a relatively common condition in the rabbit although it can be difficult to evaluate clinically. Diagnostic imaging of the rabbit has traditionally involved radiography and there are few reports regarding the use of ultrasound. The aim of this study was to determine if the tympanic bulla (TB) and associated structures could be evaluated in the rabbit using currently available ultrasound equipment. The normal anatomy of the region was established using gross dissection and emascerated specimens and compared with the dog and cat. Ten New Zealand white rabbit cadavers were examined using two ultrasound machines and four transducers from a variety of locations. A 12 MHz linear transducer was found to be most appropriate. From a lateral approach the external ear canal could be visualized to the level of the external acoustic meatus while the TB itself could only be visualized from a ventral approach. The jugular and mastoid processes in the rabbit are very prominent and interfered with imaging of the TB from all approaches. Water-soluble lubricant introduced into the TB could be identified through the ventral bone wall of the TB and allowed the lumen and far wall to be visualised. Further work is required to determine whether ultrasound examination of the TB can be performed in live rabbits and to evaluate its benefits in the evaluation of clinical cases of otitis media.     

Effects on testosterone, LH and cortisol concentrations, and on testicular ultrasonographic appearance of induced testicular degeneration in bulls.

It is well known that heat stress has a detrimental effect on testicular functions. In addition to the alteration of semen quality and testicular damage, reproductive hormone secretion can be altered. The objective of this study was to describe changes in plasma concentrations of testosterone, LH and cortisol, as well as in testicular ultrasonographic appearance after induced testicular degeneration. Four Swedish Red and White bulls, aged 3 years, were used. They were fed according to Swedish standards. The scrotum was covered with an insulation device during 96 h. Semen was collected weekly 3 times before and up to 4 months after insulation. Testicular ultrasonography and clinical genital examination were performed with the same intervals. Heparinized blood samples were taken from the jugular vein at 2 h interval during 24 h every 2 weeks during the study. Blood samples were tested for the content of testosterone, LH and cortisol. Data were analysed, using one way analysis of variance of seminal data, clinical examination data as well as 24 h hormonal output data as percentage of mean individual pretreatment values. The use of a 5 MHz B-mode ultrasound unit did not contribute with an objective estimation of the degree of testicular degeneration. In 3 of the bulls testosterone levels had a tendency to decrease and LH to increase during the time of severe degeneration, whereas an opposite trend was seen during the regenerative phase, changes becoming significant 15 weeks after scrotal insulation. Variation between animals was big. Cortisol levels had a decreasing trend, changes being significant only in individual bulls at 10 and 15 weeks after scrotal insulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Radiographic and clinical survey of degenerative joint disease in the distal tarsal joints in Icelandic horses

The prevalence of degenerative joint disease (DJD) in the distal tarsal joints and the relation between radiographic and clinical signs compatible with the disease were estimated in a population of Icelandic horses used for riding. The material consisted of 614 horses age 6-12 years (mean age = 7.9 years). Radiographs with 3 projections of each tarsus were made and a clinical examination, including palpation of the medial aspect of the distal tarsus and motion evaluation of the hindlimbs before and after a flexion test of the tarsus, was performed. Radiographic signs of DJD in the distal tarsal joints were found in 30.3% of the horses and the prevalence was strongly correlated with age. Hindlimb lameness before and after flexion test and palpation abnormalities were significantly associated with the radiographic findings. The lameness was usually mild and, in most cases, detectable only after the flexion test. The prevalence of lameness was not significantly correlated with age. Lameness could not be predicted by details of the radiographic findings.     

Retrospective analysis of historical, clinical, ultrasonographic, serum biochemical and haematological data in prognostic evaluation of equine liver disease

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Results of noninvasive tests of liver disease do not always correlate with the degree of hepatic disease nor outcome of the case. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prognostic value of data collected using noninvasive tests during the investigation of cases of suspected liver disease in mature horses. HYPOTHESIS: Much of the data gathered during the investigation of suspected hepatopathy cases offers little prognostic guidance and interpretation of such data can be misleading. METHODS: The results from a range of common and noninvasive diagnostic techniques applied in 116 mature horses with suspected liver disease, were assessed for their ability to predict survival within a 6 month period. RESULTS: A significantly poorer prognosis was found in association with clinical signs suggestive of liver disease, presence of hepatic encephalopathy, ultrasonographic abnormalities, increased serum globulins, increased total bile acids (TBA), increased alkaline phosphatase (AP), increased gamma-glutamyl transferase (gammaGT), erythrocytosis, leucocytosis, low serum albumin and low serum urea. Additional significant novel findings of interest included an association between increased plasma fibrinogen and low serum creatinine concentrations with nonsurvival in cases of liver disease, an association between raised serum concentrations of AP and gammaGT with biliary hyperplasia and also an association between hepatic fibrosis, haemosiderosis and biliary hyperplasia with ultrasonographically detected hepatic abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS: The most useful noninvasive prognostic test in cases of suspected liver disease in mature horses is the severity of clinical signs. Other data may be of some limited prognostic value. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Application of the findings in this study may not be directly applicable to other case populations. However, the findings should at least be considered when prognosis is based on similar criteria.