Comparative studies of the growth,survival, and reproduction of diploid and triploid Kumamoto oyster,Crassostrea sikamea

Triploid oysters have been used for farming to improve growth but have not been created in the Kumamoto oyster, Crassostrea sikamea, which is one of the crucial aquaculture species on the southern coast of China. In the present study, triploids were created using cytochalasin B to inhibit polar body II release in C. sikamea, with the untreated oysters as controls. Triploidy rates of 87 and 57.67%, on average, were obtained in larvae and adults, respectively. Larval growth and survival of the triploid were significantly lower than that of the controls (p < 0.05). In contrast, the triploid postlarvae and adults had a significant growth advantage over the controls (p < 0.05) during the period of 180 (December) to 450 days (September of the next year). Moreover, the triploids clearly exhibited significant sterility in the reproductive season. The glycogen and triglyceride contents in the gonad, adductor muscle, mantle, and gill were higher in triploids than in controls from 180 to 450 days. As a result, high physiological energy supply was strongly correlated with superior growth and reduced reproduction in triploid C. sikamea. The triploid C. sikamea is an excellent oyster species and can be used to improve growth for C. sikamea farming.     

Growth and gonad development of the tropical black-lip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera (L.), in the Gambier archipelago (French Polynesia)

The growth and reproductive cycle of cultured black-lipped pearl oysters, Pinctada margaritifera (L.), were studied in the Gambier Islands (134°52′ W, 23°07′ S) from September 2002 to August 2003. Temperatures were recorded throughout the year, revealing seasonal temperature variations between 22.3 and 27.8°C. The mean annual chlorophyll a value, as computed from satellite data, was 0.188 ± 0.075 μg L⁻¹. To study growth and reproduction, 720 two-year-old individuals were ear hung on long-lines suspended at a depth of 7 m. Samples were taken twice a month to obtain the following measurements: shell height; wet weight of flesh and total oyster; dry weight of adductor muscle, mantle and visceral mass; and glycogen content. Gonad development was also studied by histology on parallel samples. Growth was relatively fast during the first 6 months of the study: average shell height increased from 89.1 ± 9.1 to 119.7 ± 10.8 mm and total weight from 93.4 ± 24.5 to 155.1 ± 33.6 g, between September and the end of March. Subsequently, from April to August, no significant growth was observed for shell and flesh, while the muscle weight decreased significantly. Condition index (CI), defined as the ratio of wet weight of the visceral mass to shell weight, and histological changes in the gonad revealed 3 significant reproductive events of different intensities. The analysis of correlations revealed a specific effect of the chlorophyll a concentration on the growth of shell and soma, and one of the temperature on tissue glycogen content. This study also showed also that CI could be an efficient indicator of reproductive events in pearl oyster. It thus appears that the development of gonads goes on throughout the year in the Gambier Islands, without any detectable phase of sexual rest.     

长牡蛎MITF基因表达及与壳色的关联

为了解长牡蛎MITF基因的表达及其与壳色的关联,验证了长牡蛎中的4个MITF基因,对长牡蛎MITF氨基酸序列进行了序列分析和多序列比对,分析了长牡蛎幼体发育各时期的转录组,采用荧光定量PCR的方法研究长牡蛎各组织及黑壳、白壳牡蛎特定部位mRNA表达情况。4个MITF基因中有3个基因可能为假基因,有表达的长牡蛎MITF基因共编码448个氨基酸,为亲水性不稳定蛋白,含有N端结构域(MITF_TFEB_C3N superfamily)和高度保守的功能性结构域HLH结构域。转录组分析发现MITF在长牡蛎个体发育的各个时期均有表达,在稚贝期达到最高。组织表达结果显示MITF在外套膜中的表达水平显著高于其他组织。MITF在黑壳牡蛎闭壳肌中的表达量显著低于白壳牡蛎,而在黑壳牡蛎外套膜中的表达量高于白壳牡蛎,但不显著。在黑壳、白壳牡蛎外套膜边缘的表达量都显著高于内侧。研究表明,长牡蛎MITF基因可能在牡蛎壳形成早期就参与了黑色素的生成调控和个体的生长发育,可调控牡蛎酪氨酸酶Tyr2基因,参与外套膜和贝壳中黑色素的形成。...     

长牡蛎壳金选育群体性腺发育与营养成分的周年变化

为了评估长牡蛎(Crassostrea gigas)壳金选育群体的繁殖周期及营养价值,自2013年11月至2014年10月,对山东省刘公岛海区长牡蛎第三代壳金选育群体的性腺发育、营养成分(总蛋白、总脂肪、糖原)季节变化及其与环境因子的关系进行了研究,并比较了与普通养殖群体营养成分的差异。结果表明,长牡蛎壳金选育群体雌雄比例接近1︰1,性腺同步发育;配子发生开始于2月,全年只有1个产卵季节(6―8月),7月为两性配子排放高峰期。配子成熟及排放期间,水温处于较高水平,食物充足,可为性腺发育提供能量,也有利于幼体的存活和生长。卵母细胞直径从配子发生开始逐渐增大,并在产卵前达到最大值(36.88μm),产卵后则降低。营养成分分析表明,脂肪含量在性腺–内脏团中随配子发育积累储存,产卵后显著降低;糖原在性腺发育到4月时开始下降,为配子的发育提供能量;蛋白质在配子发育过程中大量合成,与繁殖活动存在密切联系。长牡蛎壳金选育群体外套膜的总蛋白含量显著高于普通养殖群体(P0.05),糖原和总脂肪含量显著低于普通养殖群体(P0.05),其他组织的一般营养成分未出现显著差异。研究表明,长牡蛎在壳金群体选育过程中营养成分已表现出分化,这为长牡蛎壳色选育提供了重要参考依据。     

Assessment of metabolic and immune changes in postspawning Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas: identification of a critical period of vulnerability after spawning

This study investigates the vulnerable period in postspawning Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) through physiological and immunological assessments. After spawning, the oyster condition index reduced by 50% and required 70 days to recover to the prespawning level. The mantle glycogen reduced quickly while the reduction in tissue protein occurred slowly. The mantle tissue also lost more protein than gills. The analysis of adenylate energy charge indicated that oysters were stressed in the first 8 days after spawning. As a result of spawning, haemocyte phagocytosis was reduced and remained at a low level for 3 days. In contrast, the reduction of haemolymph antimicrobial activity did not occur until 3 days after spawning and continued to decline until day 8. This immunesuppression was not directly correlated to the changes in haemocyte density. Our study suggests that the first 8 days after spawning are a critical period for oyster survival due to the loss of energy and low immunity. This study further improves our understanding of the coincidence between spawning and summer mortality in oyster aquaculture.     

Effects of the winter Monsoon on the growth,mortality, and metabolism of adult oysters in Kinmen Island,Taiwan

The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, is cultivated intertidally in Kinmen Island by both a traditional way of growing oysters on the surface of stone blocks, nicknamed “rock oysters”, and a recently introduced and more efficient way of hanging them in clusters on horizontal nylon lines, i.e. “hanging oysters”. We investigated the growth and mortality of both types of oysters from late July to early December 2003, and measured condition index (CI) and rates of oxygen consumption and ammonium excretion for the hanging oyster. Growth of oyster shells stopped in early October for the hanging oysters and early December for the rock oysters. Mortality rates were higher for hanging oysters than rock oysters. Hanging oyster's O/N ratio and CI, determined by a home-made CI meter that measured the volume of oyster's inner shell cavity with high precision, decreased significantly in October. Hanging oysters were apparently in poor physiological condition during the winter Monsoon, which is characterized by cold and persistently strong wind. On Kinmen Island the monsoon season begins in late September and is accompanied by declining seawater temperature and high seston loads in oyster farms. Chlorophyll a concentrations and seston food quality decreased significantly in early October after the winter Monsoon began. The hanging oyster's poor acclimation to the local climate was probably caused by the import of its spat from southwest coast of Taiwan where it is warmer than Kinmen Island in fall and winter. We recommend that oyster growers collect spat locally or from areas of similar climate.     

Comparative analysis of total carotenoid content in tissues of purple and white inner-shell color pearl mussel,Hyriopsis cumingii

The freshwater pearl mussel Hyriopsis cumingii is the most important mussel species for freshwater pearl production in China. Mussel shell color is an important indicator of pearl quality. The objective of this study was to assess whether total carotenoid content (TCC) in H. cumingii is related to shell color. TCC of different tissues (gonad, gill, hepatopancreas, kidney, axe foot, mantle, and adductor muscle) of purple and white inner-shell H. cumingii was determined by UV–Vis spectrophotometry. The results revealed that TCC ranged from 12.91 ± 0.78 to 56.30 ± 0.74 μg/g. In general, TCC was higher in the hepatopancreas, followed by the mantle, gonad, gill, kidney, axe foot, and adductor muscle. TCC in gonad, gill, hepatopancreas, kidney, and mantle of purple mussels was significantly higher than that of white mussels. TCC in mussel tissues of H. cumingii was significantly different (P < 0.001) with respect to shell color. There were significant positive correlations between TCC in mussel mantle and shell color intensity. Future studies will assess the biological roles of carotenoids in shell color formation.     

Reproductive cycle and biochemical composition of the Zhe oyster Crassostrea plicatula Gmelin in an eastern coastal bay of China

The reproductive cycle and biochemical composition of the oyster Crassostrea plicatula in Rushan Bay, an eastern coastal bay of China, were investigated between March 2004 and February 2005 in relation to environmental factors (temperature, salinity and chlorophyll a). Histological analysis, combined with oocyte examination and measurements of protein, glycogen and lipid levels and RNA/DNA ratio from gonad, adductor muscle and mantle tissue of each sex were performed. The gametogenic cycle of C. plicatula comprised two phases: a resting phase (November-February) and reproductively active phase, including ripeness and spawning, during the rest of year. Gametogenesis in spring and summer was associated with an increase in protein and lipid contents in the ovaries, and took place at the expense of reserves (mainly glycogen) accumulated previously during winter. The RNA/DNA ratio is a good indicator of sexual maturity in the ovary; the increasing RNA/DNA ratio in the ovary appears to show the rising synthetic activity of vitellin within the ovary. Spawning occurred at the moment when water temperature and chlorophyll a levels were highest, and salinity lowest throughout the year. High variation in glycogen contents during storage and gametogenic development suggests that carbohydrates are the main respiratory substrate in this species. The results demonstrated that C. plicatula may be considered a conservative species in gametogenic pattern.     

Sex-specific growth and condition of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg)

In order to study the possibility of gaining commercial benefit from culturing an excess of one sex of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), comparative data on the growth rate and condition of male and female oysters are reported. Historically, measurement of sex‐specific growth rate in oysters has been overlooked or confounded by protandric sex. The recent conclusion that the sex ratio of Pacific oysters is predominantly under genetic rather than environmental control introduces the possibility of manipulating sex ratio for commercial gain if they exhibit asynchronous sex‐specific growth rates. Pacific oysters were cultured intertidally in Smoky Bay, south Australia. The observations, made over the 7‐month gametogenic cycle from August to February to ensure no sex reversal, were of growth rates of male and female oysters and ambient chlorophyll a concentrations. Mean shell growth of female oysters was significantly faster than that of males (4.5 ± 3.3 compared with 3.8 ± 3.2 μm day^?1 mm^?1 total length). Sex‐specific asymmetries in length and weight were generally significant and increased in magnitude during the 7‐month study period, suggesting potential commercial benefits from increasing the proportion of cultured female oysters. The fastest increase in the sex‐specific disparity in growth and condition came after the October chlorophyll a peak, suggesting that females utilize blooms more efficiently than males. Our results compare favourably with methods currently used to increase oyster growth (e.g. triploidy can provide growth gains of 13–51%).     

Early growth and reproduction of hatchery-produced Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in Gamakman Bay off the southern coast of Korea

We investigated the early growth and reproduction of hatchery-produced Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas raised in a suspended long-line facility in Gamakman Bay, off the south coast of Korea. In October 2009, 4?months after transplanting, shell length had increased from 27.4 (July) to 82.5?mm (October), and tissue weight had increased from 0.2 to 5.2?g, indicating that the oyster had reached a marketable size in this month. Histological studies indicated rapid gonad maturation, and the oysters spawned during August and October, with a peak in September. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay used to quantify egg biomass revealed that the oysters produced a relatively small quantity of eggs, ranging from 5.1?% (August) to 8.8?% (September) of their body weight. The low total carbohydrate reserve in the tissue recorded in August and September coincided with intense energy utilization due to spawning, while the protein maximum in September matched peak egg mass. Our results suggest that hatchery-produced seed could supply a portion of the spat required in Gamakman Bay as well as in other oyster culture grounds of Korea, where the oyster industry is facing a shortage in the supply of natural spat.     

Growth of triploid oyster, Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston)

The performance of I and II meiotic triploids and control oysters (Crassostrea madrasensis) reared at Tuticorin Bay was compared to determine if the improvements in the growth of edible oysters were additive to faster growth in triploids. After a grow‐out period of 12 months, both mean whole weights and shell heights were in order I meiotic triploid>II meiotic triploid>control. Mean whole weights and shell height of different oyster lines were all significantly different (P<0.05). On an average, larger morphological traits indicated that growth improvements from triploids were additive, and throughout the study triploid oysters maintained faster growth rate than their diploid siblings. Condition index and adductor muscle diameter of both triploids were higher than those of control.     

长牡蛎"海大3号"生长繁殖与营养成分的周年变化

为阐明长牡蛎"海大3号"新品种的生长与繁殖特性,自2016年11月份至2017年10月份对养殖于山东省荣成海区长牡蛎"海大3号"群体的生长、性腺发育及营养成分的周年变化及其与环境因子的关系进行研究。结果显示,在海区水温较低的冬季1—2月份,长牡蛎"海大3号"生长缓慢,性腺处于休止期;随水温升高,在春季3—4月份配子开始发育,雌雄个体发育基本同步,4—5月份壳高生长速率加快,湿重显著增加;在夏季,随配子发育壳高生长速率降低,7月份因配子排放湿重下降;在产卵后的秋季长牡蛎"海大3号"壳高和湿重均显著增长。营养分析结果表明,随性腺发育,外套膜、性腺-内脏团、鳃和闭壳肌中糖原含量呈下降趋势,为配子发育提供能量;脂质和蛋白质作为配子主要结构物质在性腺中不断累积,随配子排放而显著降低;在秋季,4个组织中较高的蛋白质含量为机体的快速生长提供物质基础。同时外套膜作为构成壳物质的分泌器官,在8—9月份其糖原含量和脂质含量显著增加,这暗示机体的快速生长需要一定能量储备。研究表明,长牡蛎"海大3号"的生长和繁殖活动受海区水温季节性变化的影响,并与各组织营养成分密切相关。春季和秋季为机体快速生长时期,夏季为配子集中排放期;糖原是生长繁殖活动的主要能量来源,脂质是配子主要结构物质,蛋白质是机体产后恢复和快速生长的物质基础。     

Biochemical changes in oyster tissues and hemolymph during long-term air exposure

The Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas is a sessile bivalve that inhabits the intertidal zone and therefore frequently exposed to air during the tidal cycle. It is highly adaptive to hypoxic conditions. We have studied the physiological state of oysters during long-term exposure to air. The oysters became hypoxic when exposed to air or hypoxic seawater. The 50% lethal time of oysters exposed to air at 4, 15 and 20°C was 47.8, 15.9 and 12.2 days, respectively. The hemolymph pH decreased by day 3; however, it showed a slight increase by day 5 at both 4 and 20°C. The adenylate energy charge (AEC) values decreased rapidly on the first day of air exposure in the adductor muscle, mantle, gill and body trunk, and these decreases were accompanied by decreases in ATP concentrations and increases in AMP concentrations. The AEC values in all of the tissues had fallen to below 30% by day 50 of air exposure at 4°C. These data suggest that the energy state of oysters deteriorates rapidly with air exposure. Consequently, AEC values may be useful indices of the physiological state of the oyster during long-term exposure to air.     

太平洋牡蛎生理活动的季节变化

以大窑湾养殖太平洋牡蛎离体鳃为材料,周年观察鳃片的匍匐速度以及鳃片在不同盐度海水中和无氧状态下的耐受力。以此作为生理活动指标,描述了其季节变化。显示繁殖季节牡蛎的生理活动下降。同时发现本海区牡蛎鳃缘附有大量真枝螅,对牡蛎鳃纤毛的活动和生长有一定影响。     

A baseline study on lipid and fatty acid composition in the pearl oyster, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinctada fucata</Emphasis>

The pearl oyster Pinctada fucata is cultured for pearl production in China, but its germplasm is degenerated. Thus, lipid and fatty acids were investigated in P. fucata based on different tissues, body sizes and condition indexes using GC–MS to provide a lipidomic baseline for evaluation of breeding variety in terms of physiology. The major fatty acids over all samples included saturated (C16:0 and C18:0), monounsaturated [C16:1(n-7), C18:1(n-7) and C18:1(n-9)], and polyunsaturated fatty acids [arachidonic acid: C20:4(n-6), EPA: C20:5(n-3) and DHA: C22:6(n-3)]. Relative percentages of lipid contents of the mantle and visceral mass were, respectively, 40.75 and 42.03 %, significantly higher than adductor muscle (14.48 %) and gill (17.15 %). Fatty acid analysis showed that there were 15 types of fatty acids in adductor muscle, 17 types in mantle and gill, respectively, and 19 types in visceral mass. Meanwhile, total fatty acids, SFA, MUFA and PUFA were the highest in visceral mass (P < 0.05). Yet the lipid contents and fatty acid compositions showed no significant differences between body sizes or condition indexes based on visceral mass. The observations above suggested that visceral mass and mantle are the major tissues for P. fucata to store lipids and thus are important candidate tissues for lipidomic study.     

Effects of immersion salinity on the food properties of shucked oysters

The effects of immersion salinity on the food properties [water content, salinity, and free amino acid (FAA) content] of shucked oysters were analyzed. Results of a laboratory immersion experiment suggested that the molluscous parts (other than the adductor muscle) swelled in lower salinity and shrank in higher salinity. Higher FAA content was observed in oysters immersed in higher-salinity water. In the adductor muscle, water content increased and FAA content decreased markedly following immersion, regardless of salinity, probably because of intake of immersion fluid and leakage of FAAs across the cut end of the adductor muscle. Immersion salinity ranged from 0.17 to 1.54 % in shucked oyster products on the retail market. Tissue salinity was strongly correlated with immersion salinity (r = 0.904), and tissue water content was correlated negatively with immersion salinity (r = ?0.668). In addition, total FAA and taurine content of oysters were correlated with immersion salinity (r = 0.629 and 0.865, respectively). These results clearly indicate that immersion salinity is an important factor affecting the food components of shucked oysters.     

5种壳色长牡蛎不同组织中金属元素的分析与评价

为评估不同壳色长牡蛎金属元素价值,实采用电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱仪(ICP-OES)和近红外(NIR)分析模型对5种壳色(壳黑、壳紫、壳橙、壳金和壳白)长牡蛎4个组织(外套膜、鳃、闭壳肌和性腺—内脏团)中的Mg、Fe、Zn、Cu、Mn和Se元素含量进行检测分析,并比较与对照群体金属元素含量的差异以及5种壳色长牡蛎各组织间含量的差异。结果发现,在外套膜中,壳紫、壳橙和壳黑长牡蛎中Zn含量显著高于对照群体,壳紫长牡蛎Cu含量显著高于壳金和对照群体,壳金长牡蛎Mn含量显著高于壳紫和壳黑长牡蛎,其他元素在各群体中含量无显著差异;在鳃中,壳金长牡蛎Mn含量显著高于壳黑和对照群体,其他组份在6个群体无显著性差异;在闭壳肌中,壳橙和壳紫长牡蛎Zn的含量显著高于对照群体,其他组份在各群体中差异不显著;在性腺—内脏团中,壳橙长牡蛎Zn和Mn含量均显著高于对照群体,且Cu的含量显著高于壳金长牡蛎,其他元素在6个群体中含量无显著性差异。4个组织中各金属元素含量差异显著,其中闭壳肌内各金属元素含量显著低于鳃、外套膜和性腺—内脏团。研究表明,不同壳色长牡蛎之间以及不同壳色与对照群体之间在部分金属元素含量上已表现出分化,这为长牡蛎壳色新品系选育提供了重要的基础资料。     

Reproductive cycle of the rock oyster,Striostrea prismatica (Gray, 1825) from two locations on the southern coast of Ecuador

The reproductive cycle of the rock oyster Striostrea prismatica was determined at two fishing areas, General Villamil and Ayangue (located on the southern coast of Ecuador), between May 2012 and April 2013. Monthly sampling campaigns were performed at both locations. The tissues were histologically examined to determine gonadal index (GI), oocyte development, follicular area coverage and sex ratio. Surface seawater temperature, salinity and chlorophyll a concentration were measured during samplings. Our results show a similar annual reproductive pattern at both locations. The GI reached maximum values during the summer. Oysters reached highest ripeness in January and February, while spawning occurred in February–March. Gametogenesis was linked to a consistently increasing follicular area (from 1.3 ± 0.7% to 85.8 ± 7.8%) and associated to surface seawater temperature. Spawning coincided with warm water temperature fluctuations and a seawater salinity decrease. No correlation was found with Chlorophyll a concentration. The sex ratio of sampled populations was 1:1, suggesting that oysters sizing more than 10 cm in shell length present a stable sex proportion in the population. The diameter of mature oocytes was significantly reduced (32.7%) during histologically preparations in comparison to fresh oocytes. Our study provides useful information of environmental factors that may control the observed gametogenesis and spawning activity of S. prismatica.     

Phenotypic analysis in the Chilean oyster, Ostrea chilensis Philippi 1845: relationship between juvenile and adult growth rates

Abstract. The Chilean oyster, Ostrea chilensis Philippi, shows high phenotypic variability for growth rate within populations. In order to determine if the serial correlation of growth rate in oysters is positive, the correlation between shell height and live weight at different stages of the life cycle in a cohort of the Chilean oyster was estimated. Four size groups of individually tagged oysters selected on the basis of their shell heights were examined. The relationships for juvenile and adult oysters were found to be positively correlated throughout the study period. The correlation coefficients ranged from r = 0.28 to r = 0.83. For shell height the coefficient of determination for market size oysters was higher in 2-year-old (r²=0.88) than in 1-year-old oysters (r²=0.09). Shell height and live weight were more highly correlated at later stages of the life cycle. The results indicate that 2-year-old oysters have a size that is indicative of performance to market size and hence is an appropriate age to select the parents to be used in breeding programmes to improve the growth rate in O. chilensis . A high mortality was detected after the natural spawning period. A physiological stress hypothesis is proposed to explain the high summer mortality in O. chilensis in the Quempillen estuary, southern Chile.     

Reproduction, condition and mortality of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg) in Sonora, México

Starting in 1997, mortality outbreaks in cultured oysters Crassostrea gigas have been reported in northwestern México. Previous studies have shown that massive die‐offs result from multi‐factor processes related to reproduction of the species. We studied the reproductive cycle and the condition index of cultured oysters in the coastal lagoon of El Soldado, Sonora, as well as the relationship of the life cycle with environmental parameters. We used oocyte diameter to determine reproductive stages and the condition index to describe the physiological state of oysters. Additionally, the temperature, salinity, seston and chlorophyll a were recorded at the study site. The results showed that C. gigas began accelerated reproductive activity in March under the influence of high temperature and increased concentrations of food. No spawning events were recorded and gametes were reabsorbed within the gonad in September and October. The results showed a period of nutrient storage during autumn–winter and another period of gamete production in spring–summer. A mortality event occurred at the end of winter, tied to significant increases in temperature and availability of food and in accelerated reproductive activity and high condition index. These conditions were very similar to those reported in other countries during summer die‐offs of C. gigas.