Soil erosion caused by extreme rainfall events: mapping and quantification in agricultural plots from very detailed digital elevation models

This paper presents a method that can be used to quantify and map soil losses at field scale produced by extreme rainfall events. The amounts of sediment produced by overland flow and concentrated overland flow (inter-rill, rill and gully erosion) at the agricultural plot scale are evaluated from elevation differences computed from very high resolution digital elevation models (DEMs), from before and just after an extreme rainfall event. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques are used to analyse the multi-temporal spatial data. The research case study presented makes reference to a mechanised vineyard plot located in the Alt Penedès–Anoia region (Catalonia, Spain). The rainfall event, which occurred in June 2000, registered 215 mm, 205 mm of which fell in 2 h 15 min. The average intensity of the downpour was 91.8 mm h⁻¹, with a maximum intensity in 30-min periods of up to 170 mm h⁻¹. The erosivity index R reached a value of 11,756 MJ ha⁻² mm h⁻¹, 10 times greater than the annual value for this area. The volume of soil detached by the rainfall, as measured by the proposed method, was 828±19 m³. About 57% of those materials were deposited in other parts within the same plot. The balance was negative, with a total 352±36 m³ of soil loss from the plot, which represented a rate of 207±21 Mg ha⁻¹. The paper analyses the characteristics of the rainfall event in relation to historical data and discusses the proposed method for soil erosion mapping at plot scales in relation to other measurement methods.     

Nutrient losses from a vineyard soil in Northeastern Spain caused by an extraordinary rainfall event

Vineyards are one of the lands that incur the highest soil losses in Mediterranean environments. Most of the studies that report about this problem only focus on soil losses and few investigations have addressed the nutrient losses associated with erosion processes during the storms. The present research evaluates the loss of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in vineyard soils located in a Mediterranean area (NE Spain), after an extreme rainfall event recorded on 10 June 2000. The total rainfall of this event was 215 mm, 205 mm of which fell in 2 h 15 min. The maximum intensity in 30-min periods reached 170 mm h⁻¹. This rainfall produced a large amount of sediments both inside and outside the plots, with the consequent soil mobilisation and loss of nutrients. The estimate of soil loss was based on the subtraction of two very accurate digital elevation models (DEMs) of different dates in GIS, and measures of the nutrient content of sediment collected in the plot. Soil loss in the study plot reached 207 mg ha⁻¹. Most sediment was produced by concentrated surface runoff. Nutrient losses amounted as 108.5 kg ha⁻¹ of N, 108.6 kg ha⁻¹ of P and 35.6 kg ha⁻¹ of K. The proposed method allowed mapping the sediment contribution and deposition areas and the distribution of the nutrient load and losses within the plot.     

Seasonal Surface Drainage of Sloping Farmland: A Review of Its Hydrogeomorphic Impacts

The combination of runoff‐generating areas (saturated soils) and overland flow concentration in features such as drainage ditches makes sloping farmland vulnerable to soil erosion. The establishment of drainage ditches aims at draining the excess of water from the farmland, particularly in areas where soils are saturated in the rainy season. The hydrogeomorphic impacts on the farmland itself and on downstream areas need however also to be studied. Off site, downstream problems comprise higher peak discharges, leading to gully initiation, an increase in sediment load, and flooding problems. On‐site problems such as the development of the drainage ditches into (ephemeral) gullies are less documented, although they may be important, as illustrated in the Lake Tana Basin (Ethiopia). The similarities and interactions between ephemeral gully channels and drainage ditches have to be considered to better understand all effects of drainage. Drainage ditches are a potential source of conflict between farmers with different interests and power, as well as between upstream and downstream users. A case study on drainage ditches on sloping farmlands in the Lake Tana Basin showed that nine out of ten catchments had drainage densities by ditches ranging from 53 to 510 m ha⁻¹. Drainage ditches were constructed with an average top width of 27 (±9) cm. A significant correlation was found between stone bund density (physical conservation structures) and ditch drainage density (R = −0·72), in line with the Ethiopian government's ban on drainage ditches in farmlands where stone bunds have been constructed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil Erosion in Steep Road Cut Slopes in Palencia (Spain)

Construction associated to land development, such as roads and railroads, promote severe land degradation. Cutslope sediment yield is one of the major pollutants on waters close to the road and railroad network. To estimate road impact, soil erosion (E), sediment yield (SY) and morphological evolution of a railroad cut in Palencia (Spain), were studied using erosion nails, during the periods 1998–1999, 1999–2000 and 2000–2010. Data from two sample plots were analyzed by an ANOVA for repeated measures. Slope morphological evolution was estimated using a cubic polynomial regression, while E and SY were calculated by integration. The top and the toe of the slope eroded and accumulated 0·5 m respectively, evolving into a concave/convex slope profile. The mean measured E was 220 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. SY was 31 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, ranging from 109 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ to 24 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. Sediment yield was 4·5 times higher during the first year, than in all subsequent years. Results showed a decreasing trend and a stabilization in E and SY rates. However, both rates remain high and critical over the analyzed time, with regards to soil formation, water protection, land degradation and infrastructure maintenance. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

黄土高原沟壑丘陵区沟道侵蚀与洞穴侵蚀特征

[目的]通过对黄土高原沟壑丘陵区内的沟道侵蚀和洞穴侵蚀进行特征分析,为该地区开展水土保持工作提供数据支持和决策依据。[方法]以王家沟流域为研究对象,通过资料收集、卫星影像识别和现场调查等方法对流域内沟道侵蚀和洞穴侵蚀状况进行分析。[结果](1)流域内共分布718条沟道和948个洞穴。(2)根据空间位置和地形特点将所有沟道分为冲沟、切沟、干沟、河沟。这4类沟道由于受土壤岩性组成、坡度及人为活动等因素影响,空间分布存在巨大差异。(3)43%的洞穴分布在冲沟中,51%分布在切沟中,6%分布在干沟中。河沟中没有洞穴存在。冲沟和切沟是洞穴形成和发育的主要区域。(4)洞穴沟道的沟长、面积、切深、产流及产沙量都明显大于非洞穴沟道。[结论]在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区,洞穴侵蚀是土壤侵蚀的重要组成部分,并对沟道的发育和扩展起着至关重要的作用。     

Comparison of the Suspended Sediment Dynamics in Two Loess Plateau Catchments,China

Changes in runoff and sediment loads are of great importance for the management of river basins and the implementation of soil and water conservation measures. This study compared the suspended sediment dynamics in the Huangfuchuan and Yanhe catchments on the Loess Plateau. Both annual runoff and sediment load displayed significant reductions from 1955 to 2012. The decreasing rates were −0·88 mm a⁻¹ and −2·72 Mg ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ in the Huangfuchuan catchment, respectively, and ‐0.31 mm a⁻¹ and −1·20 Mg ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ in the Yanhe catchment. A total of 183 and 195 events, respectively, were selected to assess the suspended sediment dynamics in both catchments during the periods of 1971–1989 and 2006–2012. The results showed a good linear relationship between the sediment yield and runoff depth in both catchments from 1971 to 1989 and a relatively worse relationship in the Yanhe catchment from 2006 to 2012. The magnitude and frequency of the hyper‐concentrated sediment flow obviously decreased in the 2000s compared with that between 1971 and 1989. A hysteresis analysis suggested that complex and counter‐clockwise loops were the dominant patterns. Various soil and water conservation measures (e.g., afforestation, grassing, terraces, and check dams) played a critical role in runoff and sediment load changes in both catchments. The two catchments showed obvious heterogeneities in runoff and sediment yield because of different lithologies, soil types, and vegetation. The results of this study provide valuable information on suspended sediment dynamics and could be used to improve soil erosion control measures on the Loess Plateau. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modelling Post‐Tree‐Harvesting Soil Erosion and Sediment Deposition Potential in the Turano River Basin (Italian Central Apennine)

The overall aim of the paper is the assessment of human‐induced accelerated soil erosion processes due to forest harvesting in the Upper Turano River Basin. The spatio‐temporal pattern of soil erosion processes was investigated by means of a spatially distributed modelling approach. We used the Unit Stream Power Erosion and Deposition model. During the soil erosion‐modelling phase, the forest cover changes were mapped via remote sensing. According to this operation, the forest sectors exploited for timber production amounted to about 2781 ha or 9·9% of the wooded surface from March 2001 to August 2011. In this period, the average annual net soil erosion rate estimated by means of modelling operations totalled 0·83 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ for all the forest lands. The net soil erosion rate predicted for the disturbed forest lands is significantly higher than the average value for the entire forest (5·34 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹). Estimates indicate a soil loss equal to 8521 Mg y⁻¹ (net soil erosion 0·34 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) in the undisturbed forest area (254 km²), whereas the 27·8 km² of disturbed forest area could potentially lose 14 846 Mg y⁻¹. The paper shows that a disturbed forest sector could produce about 74·2% more net erosion than a nine times larger, undisturbed forest sector. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Potential of mine land reclamation for soil organic carbon sequestration in Ohio

Soils are an effective sink for carbon storage and immobilization through biomass productivity and enhancement of soil organic carbon (SOC) pool. The SOC sink capacity depends on land use and management. Degraded lands lose large amounts of C through SOC decomposition, erosion, and leaching. Thus, restoration of disturbed and degraded mine lands can lead to increase in biomass productivity, improved soil quality and SOC enhancement and sequestration. Reclamation of mined lands is an aggrading process and offers significant potential to sequester C. A chronosequence study consisting of 0‐, 5‐, 10‐, 15‐, 20‐ and 25‐year‐old reclaimed mine soils in Ohio was initiated to assess the rate of C sequestration by pasture and forest establishment. Undisturbed pasture and forest were used as controls. The SOC pool of reclaimed pasture sites increased from 15·3 Mg ha⁻¹ to 44·4 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–15 cm depth and from 10·8 Mg ha⁻¹ to 18·3 Mg ha⁻¹ for 15–30 cm depth over the period of 25 years. The SOC pool of reclaimed forest sites increased from 12·7 Mg ha⁻¹ to 45·3 Mg ha⁻¹ for 0–15 cm depth and from 9·1 Mg ha⁻¹ to 13·6 Mg ha⁻¹ for 15–30 cm depth over the same time period. The SOC pool of the pasture site stabilized earlier than that of the forest site which had not yet attained equilibrium. The SOC sequestered in 0–30 cm depth over 25 years was 36·7 Mg ha⁻¹ for pasture and 37·1 Mg ha⁻¹ for forest. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ephemeral gully erosion in northwestern Spain

This study aimed to describe types of ephemeral gullies and to determine their origin, evolution and importance as sediment sources in A Coruña province (northwest Spain). Ephemeral gullies and/or rills have been measured in a representative sample of medium-textured soils, most prone to crusting, developed over basic schist. This sample consisted of 11 small sites, ranging from 0.63 to 7.34 ha. A case study of concentrated (rill+gully) erosion in a 0.47-ha catchment with coarse-textured soils developed over granite was also reported. The mean slope of the sites studied ranged from 6.1% to 16.8%. Main periods when soil surface was poorly covered were late spring (maize seedbeds) and late autumn–early winter (grassland and winter cereal seedbeds). Case studies where fields were left bare in winter were also investigated. Soil incision and channel formation were observed even with relatively low rainfall intensities when the soil surface was sealed, but also after a single short intense rainfall event on recently tilled surfaces. Concentrated erosion took place mainly on seedbeds and newly tilled soils in late spring and by autumn or early winter, but gullies also appeared in other seasons when the soil surface was left bare. In most of the cases studied, ephemeral gully erosion caused significant soil losses, ranging between 2 and 5 m³/ha for a single season to locally, over 25 m³/ha. Gully development was significantly affected by agricultural operations, such as lineal elements often acting as initial axes of concentrated erosion. Main gullies tended to reappear at the same position.     

Soil degradative effects of slope length and tillage methods on alfisols in Western Nigeria. I. Runoff,erosion and crop response

Field runoff plots were established in 1984 to evaluate the effects of slope length on runoff, soil erosion and crop yields on newly cleared land for four consecutive years (1984–1987) on an Alfisol at Ibadan, Nigeria. The experimental treatments involved six slope lengths (60 m to 10 m at 10-m increments) and two tillage methods (plough-based conventional tillage and a herbicide-based no-till method) of seedbed preparation. A uniform crop rotation of maize (Zea mays)/cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) was adopted for all four years. An uncropped and ploughed plot of 25 m length was used as a control. The water runoff from the conventional tillage treatment was not significantly affected by slope length, but runoff from the no-till treatment significantly increased with a decrease in slope length. The average runoff from the no-till treatment was 1·85 per cent of rainfall for 60 m, 2·25 per cent for 40 m, 2·95 per cent for 30 m, 4·7 per cent for 20 m and 5·15 per cent for 10 m slope length. In contrast to runoff, soil erosion in the conventional tillage treatment decreased significantly with a decrease in slope length. For conventional tillage, the average soil erosion was 9·59 Mg ha⁻¹ for 60 m, 9·88 Mg ha⁻¹ for 50 m, 6·84 Mg ha⁻¹ for 40 m, 5·69 Mg ha⁻¹ for 30 m, 1·27 Mg ha⁻¹ for 20 m and 2·19 Mg ha⁻¹ for 10 m slope length. Because the no-till method was extremely effective in reducing soil erosion, there were no definite trends in erosion with regard to slope length. The average sediment load (erosion:runoff ratio) also decreased with a decrease in slope length from 66·3 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ for 60 m to 36·3 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ for 10 m slope length. The mean C factor (ratio of soil erosion from cropped land to uncropped control) also decreased with a decrease in slope length. Similarly, the erosion:crop yield ratio decreased with a decrease in slope length, and the relative decrease was more drastic in conventional tillage than in the no-till treatment. The slope length (L) and erosion relationship fits a polynomial function (Y=c+aL+bL²). Formulae are proposed for computing the optimum terrace spacing in relation to slope gradient and tillage method. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mulching effects on soil physical quality of an alfisol in western Nigeria

Degradation of soil physical quality, following deforestation and cultivation, is a major soil‐related constraint to an intensive use of soil for crop production in subhumid regions of subSaharan Africa. Use of crop residue mulch is an important strategy to minimize the risks of soil degradation. Therefore, a three‐year experiment was conducted to study the effects of five rates of mulch application (0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 Mg ha⁻¹ season⁻¹) on soil physical properties and growth and yield of maize (Zea mays). Mulch rate of rice straw significantly increased maize grain and stover yields during the first season, and the stover yield during the second season. In comparison with the control, the grain yield increased by 20 per cent at 2 Mg ha⁻¹ of mulch rate and by 33 per cent at 8 Mg ha⁻¹ of mulch rate. The rate of increase was 0·16 Mg ha⁻¹ for grain yield and 0·38 Mg ha⁻¹ for stover yield for every Mg of mulch applied. The increase in stover yield during the second season was 67 per cent for 8 Mg ha⁻¹ mulch rate compared with the unmulched control. Effects of mulch rate on soil physical properties were confined mostly to the surface 0–5 cm depth. For this depth, mulching decreased bulk density from 1·17 Mg m⁻³ for control to 0·98 Mg m⁻³, and penetration resistance from 1·54 kg cm⁻² to 1·07 kg cm⁻² for 8 Mg ha⁻¹ of mulch rate. Application of mulch up to 16 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for three consecutive years had no effect on soil physical properties below 5 cm depth. Experiments were probably not conducted for a long enough period. For mulch farming to be adopted by farmers of West Africa, it must be an integral part of the improved farming system. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Surface Disturbance and Erosion by Pigs: A Medium Term Assessment for the Monsoonal Tropics

Introduced pigs (Sus scrofa ) are recognised as having significant environmental impacts. Here, we quantify the effect of feral pigs in a catchment (undisturbed by Europeans) in the monsoonal tropics of northern Australia. Field data collected over a 5‐year period showed that the areal extent of pig disturbance ranged from 0·3 to 3·3% of the survey area (average 1·2%, σ = 0·9%). Mass of exhumed material was considerable and ranged from 4·3 to 36·0 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ (average 10·9 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹). The excavations produce surface roughness which acts as sediment traps. Over the 5‐year study period, there was no evidence to suggest that pigs produce any rill or gully erosion. There does not appear to be any relationship between rainfall amount and area disturbed or volume of material exhumed. However, a significant positive relationship was observed between number of disturbances and rainfall. The location of any disturbance appears to be random and has no relationship with topography or geomorphic attributes such as slope, upslope contributing area or wetness indices derived from a high‐resolution digital elevation model of the site. While pigs are disturbingly relatively large volumes of soil, there is no clear evidence to support any increase in local erosion and soil structural change may be occurring slowly and only be observable over the long term. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of soil erosion hazard in Kilie catchment,East Shoa,Ethiopia

This paper reports on a field study conducted in Kilie catchment, East Shoa Zone, Ethiopia to assess the rate of soil erosion by employing a soil loss prediction model (Universal Soil Loss Equation) integrated with in remote sensing and geographical information systems (RS/GIS), environment and gully measurement techniques. The final soil erosion risk map was produced after multiplication of the six factors involved in the USLE and RS/GIS. Gully measurement showed that the erosion rate is higher for the upland areas than the lowlands due to inappropriate soil and water conservation measures, free grazing by animals and conversion of hillside areas into farmlands. About 97·04 per cent of the study catchment falls within a range of 0–10 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ sheet/rill erosion rate. We found that 2·17 per cent of the study area in the uplands has a soil erosion rate falling between 10 and 20 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. About 0·8 per cent of the study area in the uplands is hit by severe sheet/rill erosion rate within the range of 20–60 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Gully erosion extent in the study area was evaluated through gully measurement and quantification methods. Gully density of 67 m ha⁻¹ was recorded in the catchment. The gully to plot area ratio was found to be 0·14 on average. Hence, in the upland areas, sustainable land management practices are required in order to reduce the rate of soil erosion. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

半干旱黄土丘陵沟壑区沟道侵蚀特征研究

利用遥感、地理信息技术和数理统计方法,选择山西省吕梁市王家沟流域为典型区域,系统分析了半干旱黄土丘陵沟壑区沟道侵蚀特征。研究结果表明:在王家沟流域内共有沟道718条,其中冲沟109条,切沟286条,干沟302条及河沟21条。这4类沟道的发育特征和空间分布特征存在巨大差异;沟道侵蚀是王家沟流域内土壤侵蚀的主要形式,沟道侵蚀面积占总侵蚀面积的56.19%;流域内不同坡度范围内土壤侵蚀强度与沟道类型存在紧密联系。同时,人为因素也对黄土丘陵沟壑区的沟道侵蚀具有重要的影响。     

Effects of land management practices and land cover types on soil loss and crop productivity in Ethiopia: A review

Identifying land management practices (LMPs) that enhance on-site sediment management and crop productivity is crucial for the prevention, reduction, and restoration of land degradation and contributing to achieving land degradation neutrality (LDN). We reviewed studies in Ethiopia to assess the effects of LMPs on soil loss (84 studies) and crop productivity (34 studies) relative to control practice. Yield variability on conserved lands was assessed using 12,796 fixed plot data. Effects of LMP on soil loss were 0.5–55 t ha⁻¹y⁻¹ compared to control practices yielding 50 to 140 t ha⁻¹y⁻¹. More than 55% of soil loss records revealed soil loss less than the tolerable rate (10 t ha⁻¹). Area closure, perennial vegetation cover, agronomic practices, mechanical erosion control practices, annual cropland cover, and drainage groups of practices led to 74.0 ± 18.3%, 69.0 ± 24.6%, 66.2 ± 30.5%, 66.1 ± 18.0%, 63.5 ± 20.0%, and 40 ± 11,1% soil loss reduction, respectively. A yield increase of 25.2 ± 15.0%, 37.5 ± 28.0%, and 75.4 ± 85.0% was found from drainage, agronomy, and mechanical erosion control practices, respectively. The average yield loss by erosion on fields without appropriate land management practice and on conserved fields was 26.5 ± 26.0% and 25 ± 3.7%, respectively. The findings suggest that practices that entail a continuous presence of soil cover during the rainy season, perennial vegetation, retention of moisture, and barriers for sediment transport were most effective at decreasing soil loss and increasing productivity. This review provides evidence to identify the best LMP practices for wider adoption and inform decision-making on LMP investments towards achieving sustainable solutions to reverse land degradation.     

Soil and Water Assessment Tool Soil Loss Simulation at the Sub‐Basin Scale in the Alt Penedès–Anoia Vineyard Region (Ne Spain) in the 2000s

This paper evaluates soil loss due to water erosion in an area of 32,362 ha with a predominant land use of vineyards (Alt Penedès–Anoia region, Catalonia, Spain). The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used incorporating daily climatic data for the period 2000–2010 and also detailed soil and land use maps. Particular attention was given to the universal soil loss equation cover and management factor (C factor) of vineyards, with a minimum value of 0·15 being determined for this crop. The model was calibrated using daily flow data for the year 2010, which yielded satisfactory results. Even so, significant differences were obtained on days with high‐intensity rainfall events, when the model overestimated runoff and peak discharge. In these vineyards, the simulated average soil losses per sub‐basin ranged between 0·13 and 9·73 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, with maximum values of between 26·32 and 42·60 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ registered in fine‐loamy soils developed on unconsolidated Tertiary marls. Other findings were related to problems associated with SWAT calibration under Mediterranean conditions characterised by major climate variability and high‐intensity rainfall events. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

黄土区坡耕地耕作对浅沟径流产沙及其形态发育特征的影响

为研究耕作对浅沟径流产沙及形态发育特征的影响,在野外调查的基础上,设计坡度(15°、20°、25°)、雨强(1.0、1.5、2.0 mm/min)及放水流量(7.53~23.45 L/min)3个处理,采用室内模拟降雨和放水冲刷的方法,测定了不同处理下浅沟径流量、产沙量。结果表明:1)2种浅沟水流均为紊流,耕作使浅沟水流雷诺数和弗劳德数分别减小0.95%~30.77%、2.64%~39.14%,阻力系数和糙率系数分别增加4.01%~58.82%、0.88%~27.87%;2)试验条件下,耕作使浅沟土壤剥蚀率增大9.48%~37.87%,未耕作与耕作浅沟土壤剥蚀率分别与坡度—流量交互作用、雨强—坡度交互作用呈极显著线性关系,土壤剥蚀率与径流剪切力、径流功率及单位径流功率均呈显著的线性关系,未耕作浅沟发生剥蚀的临界剪切力、临界功率及临界单位径流功率分别为17.576 N/m2、5.036 W/(m2·s)、0.0381 m/s,耕作浅沟为10.585 N/m2、3.544 W/(m2·s)、0.0277 m/s;3)耕作使浅沟宽度增加1.98%~31.79%,浅沟面积增大0.84%~32.03%,下切深度降低2.82%~26.67%;4)耕作使浅沟土壤侵蚀量增加0.91%~22.80%,未耕作和耕作浅沟土壤侵蚀量分别占坡面土壤侵蚀总量的44.09%~74.16%和42.44%~56.44%,与雨强—流量交互作用均呈极显著的线性函数关系。结果可为该区浅沟侵蚀预测模型的建立及农业生态环境安全与保护提供科学依据。     

Rill and gully development during an extreme winter runoff event in Norway

Erosion on agricultural fields in Norway has earlier been reported to be mainly sheet and minor rill erosion. Exceptional rainfall events during January and February (230% of 30 years monthly mean) in 1990 led to extreme runoff and widespread erosion also on areas normally not considered to have a high erosion risk. This study presents the results of a field survey in three counties where rills and ephemeral gullies were measured after this event. Shifting weather conditions with freezing and thawing had given frozen subsoil. Topsoil conditions varied from ice- and snow-covered surface to thawed surface with frozen subsoil. In one of the areas with a high clay content, only the upper topsoil layer was unfrozen during this event. Extended sheet erosion and smaller rills occurred. In the southernmost locations, more of the topsoil profile was unfrozen. Combined with a high silt/sand content, more severe rilling and ephemeral gullies developed. Gullies developed down to the depth of the drainpipes in all locations. This erosion equals soil losses of more than 100 tons ha⁻¹ or 8–9 mm soil lost from the entire field area. Different mechanisms for gully development were registered. Gullies developed as enlarged rills with headward migration and sidewall sloughing. Knickpoints in the slope could also lead to gully development. Concentrated water flow entering the field from farmyards, roads, neighbouring fields and woods could be the starting point for uncontrolled rilling and ephemeral gullying. The combination of frozen subsoil, saturated soil with low strength and intense rainfall led to gully development also on areas with gentle slopes, especially sandy soils. Management practices like crop cover, tillage and lack of surface water control highly influenced the development of gullies.     

Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods for Soil Erosion Assessments: An Application in a Sloping Mediterranean Watershed,Cyprus

In arid and semi‐arid regions, water erosion is difficult to model because of highly irregular precipitation regimes and changes in vegetation cover. The application of quantitative, process‐based models at the catchment scale is often problematic because of large data requirements. Qualitative methods require less data and can be more easily performed in a relatively short time, but they are more subjective. The objective of this research is to develop an erosion assessment methodology that combines qualitative field surveys with quantitative model estimates. The qualitative World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) methodology is based on expert observations per mapping unit, while the Pan‐European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA) model simulates hill slope soil loss based on land cover, soil texture, meteorological data and slope profile. This study was conducted in the 106·4‐km² Peristerona watershed in Cyprus with a mean local slope higher than 40% in the mountainous upstream area and less than 8% in the plain. Out of 68 units, PESERA and WOCAT results were in agreement in 40 units, while PESERA results were lower in 25 and higher in 3 units. Both methods identified burnt areas and complex cultivation patterns as the most degraded. The total PESERA‐based sediment yield for the watershed was 1·2 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, which fell within the range of the sediment yield measured at the check‐dam downstream (0·2–2 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹). This study provides a linkage between qualitative and quantitative soil erosion methods and helps to translate the outcomes of the former into the latter, thus providing a good tool for local erosion assessment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Runoff Development and Soil Erosion in a Wet Tropical Montane Setting under Coffee Cultivation

The western interior portions of Puerto Rico offer optimal climatic conditions for coffee cultivation. However, land and water degradation result when abrupt topographic relief and high annual rainfall combine with forest conversion for coffee farming. Small‐scale rainfall simulation experiments were conducted to quantify runoff and erosion from four land surface types (i.e., mulched, weed‐covered, and bare soils under active cultivation, and unpaved roads) representative of coffee farms in Puerto Rico. Results show that mulch‐covered soils had runoff coefficients similar to those from undisturbed forested conditions (~4%), and that they eroded at rates about a quarter of those for bare cultivated soils. Weed‐covered soils had surprisingly high runoff coefficients (~70%), yet their erosion rates were only three‐fourths of those for bare soils. Annualized erosion rates from unpaved roads were 65 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, or ten times greater than bare soils and about a hundred times higher than weed‐ or mulch‐covered surfaces. Farm‐scale sediment production estimates amount to ~11 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, about two‐orders of magnitude higher than under forested conditions. At the farm‐scale, only 2 – 8% of the total sediment is potentially attributable to cultivated hillslopes. In contrast, unpaved roads may account for over 90% of the sediment budget, even though they comprise only 15% of the farm surface area. Therefore, while providing mulch or a vegetative cover to bare cultivated soils should be part of effective soil management, mitigating the effects of coffee cultivation on downstream water resources must focus on the unpaved road network as the primary sediment source. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.