非饱和土壤热质运移的数学模型

A system atic study of coupled heat and mass transfer in unsaturated soils under complex boundary conditions was carried out and a mathematical model of heat and mass transfer in unsaturated soils was established by non-equilibrium thermodynamic theory. The gradient of volumetric moisture content, the gradient of temperature, the salt mass concentration and vapor pressure were the primary driving forces influencing the process of heat and mass transfer in unsaturated soils. Based on the thermodynam ic analysis and the mass and energy conservation principles, a set of mass and energy equations were developed. The initial and boundary conditions of soil column for one dimension were also given out.     

Spatial variability of nitrous oxide emissions in an unmanaged old‐growth beech forest

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a high‐impact greenhouse gas. Due to the scarcity of unmanaged forests in Central Europe, its long‐term natural background emission level is not entirely clear. We measured soil N₂O emissions in an unmanaged, old‐growth beech forest in the Hainich National Park, Germany, at 15 plots over a 1‐year period. The average annual measured N₂O flux rate was (0.49 ± 0.44) kg N ha^–1 y^–1. The N₂O emissions showed background‐emission patterns with two N₂O peaks. A correlation analysis shows that the distance between plots (up to 380 m) does not control flux correlations. Comparison of measured data with annual N₂O flux rates obtained from a standard model (Forest‐DNDC) without site‐specific recalibration reveals that the model overestimates the actual measured N₂O flux rates mainly in spring. Temporal variability of measured N₂O flux was better depicted by the model at plots with high soil organic C (SOC) content. Modeled N₂O flux rates were increased during freezing only when SOC was > 0.06 kg C kg^–1. The results indicate that the natural background of N₂O emissions may be lower than assumed by most approaches.     

Methane uptake and nitrous oxide emission in Japanese forest soils and their relationship to soil and vegetation types

Abstract

To determine the means and variations in CH₄ uptake and N₂O emission in the dominant soil and vegetation types to enable estimation of annual gases fluxes in the forest land of Japan, we measured monthly fluxes of both gases using a closed-chamber technique at 26 sites throughout Japan over 2 years. No clear seasonal changes in CH₄ uptake rates were observed at most sites. N₂O emission was mostly low throughout the year, but was higher in summer at most sites. The annual mean rates of CH₄ uptake and N₂O emission (all sites combined) were 66 (2.9–175) µg CH₄-C m^?2 h^?1 and 1.88 (0.17–12.5) µg N₂O-N m^?2 h^?1, respectively. Annual changes in these fluxes over the 2 years were small. Significant differences in CH₄ uptake were found among soil types (P < 0.05). The mean CH₄ uptake rates (µg CH₄-C m^?2 h^?1) were as follows: Black soil (95 ± 39, mean ± standard deviation [SD]) > Brown forest soil (60 ± 27) ≥ other soils (20 ± 24). N₂O emission rates differed significantly among vegetation types (P < 0.05). The mean N₂O emission rates (µg N₂O-N m^?2 h^?1) were as follows: Japanese cedar (4.0 ± 2.3) ≥ Japanese cypress (2.6 ± 3.4) > hardwoods (0.8 ± 2.2) = other conifers (0.7 ± 1.4). The CH₄ uptake rates in Japanese temperate forests were relatively higher than those in Europe and the USA (11–43 µg CH₄-C m^?2 h^?1), and the N₂O emission rates in Japan were lower than those reported for temperate forests (0.23–252 µg N₂O-N m^?2 h^?1). Using land area data of vegetation cover and soil distribution, the amount of annual CH₄ uptake and N₂O emission in the Japanese forest land was estimated to be 124 Gg CH₄-C year^?1 with 39% uncertainty and 3.3 Gg N₂O-N year^?1 with 76% uncertainty, respectively.     

Effect of the nitrification inhibitor DMPP on nitrous oxide emissions and the stabilization of ammonium following the injection of dairy slurry and digestate in a soil‐column experiment

Injection of slurry or digestate below maize seeds is a relatively new technique developed to improve nitrogen use efficiency. However, this practice has the major drawback of increasing nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. The application of a nitrification inhibitor (NI) is an effective method to reduce these emissions. To evaluate the effect of the NI 3,4‐dimethypyrazole phosphate (DMPP) on N₂O emissions and the stabilization of ammonium, a two‐factorial soil‐column experiment was conducted. PVC pipes (20 cm diameter and 30 cm length) were used as incubation vessels for the soil‐columns. The trial consisted of four treatments in a randomized block design with four replications: slurry injection, slurry injection + DMPP, digestate injection, and digestate injection + DMPP. During the 47‐day incubation period, N₂O fluxes were measured twice a week and cumulated by linear interpolation of the gas‐fluxes of consecutive measurement dates. After completion of the gas flux measurement, concentration of ammonium and nitrate within the soil‐columns was determined. DMPP delayed the conversion of ammonium within the manure injection zone significantly. This effect was considerably more pronounced in treatment digestate + NI than in treatment slurry + NI. Regarding the cumulated N₂O emissions, no difference between slurry and digestate treatments was determined. DMPP reduced the release of N₂O significantly. Transferring the results into practice, the use of DMPP is a promising way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate leaching, following the injection of slurry or digestate.     

The dynamics of N2O near the groundwater table and the transfer of N2O into the unsaturated zone: A case study from a sandy aquifer in Germany

The research area was the Fuhrberger Feld aquifer (FFA) in northern Germany. It is situated about 30km northeast of the city of Hannover and covers about 300km². Six multilevel sampling wells along a representative strip under predominantly arable land along a groundwater flow-line were sampled from the groundwater table down to a depth of 10m below the soil surface. We measured N₂O, CO₂, NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, DOC, pH, redox potentials and O₂ concentrations.N₂O accumulated at four out of six wells close to the groundwater table. About 20% of N₂O that occurred between the groundwater table and 7–8m below it resided in the top 0.4m. An exchange zone for N₂O at the interface between the saturated and the unsaturated zone extended 0.55 ± 0.22m below the groundwater table and acted as a source and sink for N₂O. N₂O below the exchange zone cannot be transferred from the groundwater to the atmosphere. The upward fluxes from the exchange zone into the unsaturated zone at the six wells ranged between 0.0009 and 0.3kg N₂O ha^{− 1} year^{− 1}. The yearly downward fluxes into the exchange zones had about the same order of magnitude as the upward fluxes. The upward and downward fluxes of N₂O at the (fluctuating) water table did cancel out each other, but this does not yet imply, that the N₂O fluxes at the soil surface also cancel out each other.N₂O–N:NO₃–N ratios were highly variable ranging from 0.0002 to 0.0417.A multiple regression for the monthly N₂O amounts in the exchange zone could explain 66% of the yearly variation. The significant variables were NO₃⁻, CO₂, pH, and O₂. Therefore, a combination of the land use (NO₃⁻), the geochemical boundary conditions (pH) and the type of denitrification reaction (O₂ and CO₂ indicate the importance of a heterotrophic denitrification process) governed the N₂O dynamics in the surface groundwater of the FFA and its transfer into the unsaturated zone.     

Comparison of the effectiveness of a nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide, in reducing nitrous oxide emissions in four different soils under different climatic and management conditions

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a potent greenhouse gas and, in New Zealand, about one‐third of the total greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector are of N₂O, mostly derived from animal excreta in grazed pasture soils. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide (DCD), in reducing N₂O emissions from animal urine patches in four different soils located in different regions of New Zealand with different soil, climatic and management conditions. The four soils are Templeton fine sandy loam and Lismore stony silt loam in Canterbury in the South Island, Horotiu silt loam in the Waikato region and Taupo pumice sand near Lake Taupo, both in the North Island. Results showed that the application of a fine‐particle suspension nitrification inhibitor, DCD, to grazed pasture soils was very effective in reducing N₂O emissions in all four different soils. Total N₂O emissions (over 69–137 days) from animal urine patches ranged from 1 to 20.9 kg N₂O‐N ha^?1 without DCD. These were reduced to 0.31–5.7 kg N₂O‐N ha^?1 by the use of DCD, representing 61–73% reductions (with an average of 70% reduction). The N₂O‐N emission factor from animal urine N, EF₃, was reduced from an average of 0.9 to 0.3% by the use of DCD. These results demonstrate the potential of using nitrification inhibitors to mitigate N₂O emissions in a wide range of grazed pasture soils under different climatic and management conditions.     

Effects of the nitrification inhibitor nitrapyrin and the plant growth regulator gibberellic acid on yield-scale nitrous oxide emission in maize fields under hot climatic conditions

Nitrification inhibitors are widely used in agriculture to mitigate nitrous oxide(N₂O)emission and increase crop yield.However,no concrete information on their mitigation of N₂O emission is available under soil and environmental conditions as in Pakistan.A field experiment was established using a silt clay loam soil from Peshawar,Pakistan,to study the effect of urea applied in combination with a nitrification inhibitor,nitrapyrin(2-chloro-6-tri-chloromethyl pyridine),and/or a plant growth regulator,gibberellic acid(GA_3),on N₂O emission and the nitrogen(N)uptake efficiency of maize.The experimental design was a randomized complete block with five treatments in four replicates:control with no N(CK),urea(200 kg N ha^-1)alone,urea in combination with nitrapyrin(700 g ha^-1),urea in combination with GA_3(60 g ha^-1),and urea in combination with nitrapyrin and GA_3.The N₂O emission,yield,N response efficiency,and total N uptake were measured during the experimental period.The treatment with urea and nitrapyrin reduced total N₂O emission by 39%–43%and decreased yield-scaled N₂O emission by 47%–52%,relative to the treatment with urea alone.The maize plant biomass,grain yield,and total N uptake increased significantly by 23%,17%,and 15%,respectively,in the treatment with urea and nitrapyrin,relative to the treatment with urea alone,which was possibly due to N saving,lower N loss,and increased N uptake in the form of ammonium;they were further enhanced in the treatment with urea,nitrapyrin,and GA_3 by 27%,36%,and 25%,respectively,probably because of the stimulating effect of GA_3 on plant growth and development and the reduction in biotic and abiotic stresses.These results suggest that applying urea in combination with nitrapyrin and GA_3 has the potential to mitigate N₂O emission,improve N response efficiency,and increase maize yield.     

基于AMSR-E的黄河源区表层土壤水分时空变化

黄河源区生态环境和水文过程对气候变化的响应是该区域研究的热点问题,但相对于其他环境和水文要素而言,大尺度长序列的土壤水分时空分布特征研究不足.本文基于AMSR-E被动微波遥感数据和地面实测数据,首先采用引入Qp模型的双通道反演算法校正AMSR-E土壤水分数据,获得的土壤水分产品(SMD)精度高于官方提供的土壤水分产品(SMo),但其波动范围与实测数据有差异.之后采用逐月回归分析法对SM0进行二次校正,其土壤水分产品(SML)具有更高的精度且变化趋势与实测数据一致.基于SML土壤水分产品,对黄河源区及其5个自然分区表层土壤水分的时空变化特征及其影响因素进行分析.黄河源区年平均表层土壤水分为0.140～0.380 cm3/cm3,在2003-2010年间呈下降趋势,在东南部土壤水分较高的若尔盖丘状高原区、黄南山地区和果洛玉树高原宽谷区土壤水分呈下降趋势,其中若尔盖丘状高原区的下降速率最快,而在西北部土壤水分较低的黄河源宽谷湖盆区和柴达木东缘山区呈增加趋势;春季土壤水分呈下降趋势,夏季呈增加趋势,秋季的波动较大,冬季的变化的不大,其中9月土壤水分增加率和5月减少率最大.土壤水分受降水和植被指数的影响最大,气温表现为在年高温月份与土壤水分呈负相关,在年低温月份呈正相关.研究结果为AMSR-E土壤水分数据的研究与应用提供了依据,有助于深化对区域尺度土壤水分格局及其对气候变化响应的研究,对高原生态环境建设有重大意义.     

Application of the DNDC model to predict N2O emissions from sandy arable soils with differing fertilization in a long‐term experiment

Modeling crop growth and soil N dynamics is difficult due to the complex nature of soil–plant systems. In several studies, the DNDC model has been claimed to be well‐suited for this purpose whereas in other studies applications of the model were less successful. Objectives of this study were to test a calibration and validation scheme for DNDC‐model applications to describe a field experiment with spring wheat on a sandy soil near Darmstadt (SW Germany) using different fertilizer types (either application of mineral fertilizer and straw—MSI; or application of farmyard manure—FYM) and rates (low—MSI_L, FYM_L; and medium—MSI_M, FYM_M). The model test is based on a model parameterization to best describe the case MSI_L and applies this parameterization for a retrospective simulation of the other cases (MSI_M, FYM_L, FYM_M) including crop growth and N₂O emissions. Soil water contents were not accurately simulated using either the DNDC default values for a loamy sand or for the next finer texture class or using results from the pedotransfer function provided by ROSETTA. After successful calibration of the soil water flow model using a soil texture class that led to the best fit of the measured water content data, grain yield of spring wheat and cumulative N₂O emission were slightly underestimated by DNDC and were between 91% and 86% of the measured data. A subsequent calibration of the yields and cumulative N₂O emissions from soils of the MSI_L treatment gave a good prediction of crop growth and N₂O emissions in the MSI_M treatment, but a marked underestimation of yields of the FYM treatments. Cumulative N₂O emissions were predicted well for all MSI and FYM treatments, but seasonal dynamics were not. Overall, our results indicated that for the sandy soil in Germany, site‐specific calibration was essentially required for the soil hydrology and that a calibration was useful for a subsequent prediction where greater amounts of the same fertilizer were used, but not useful for a prediction with a different fertilizer type.     

An assessment of the impact of climate change on evapotranspiration,groundwater recharge,and low‐flow conditions in a mesoscale catchment in Northeast Germany

Future climate changes might have some impacts on the discharge regime of rivers in Germany regarding, e.g., longer low‐flow periods in summer months due to a decreased precipitation and increased evapotranspiration. During such low‐flow periods, water temperature increases leading to a reduced oxygen concentration and a decrease in water quality. An assessment of such impacts is required to derive adaptation strategies for future water‐resources management. The main objective of our study was to obtain an estimation of the impact of projected future climate change on evapotranspiration, groundwater recharge, and low‐flow conditions. For that purpose, we applied a hydrological catchment model in the Ucker catchment with an area of 2415 km² located in the lowlands of NE Germany using meteorological time series from 1951 to 2055. These time series were generated by the Potsdam Institute of Climate Impact Research based on the A1B‐Scenario with an increase of 1.4°C of the mean annual temperature and a mean decrease of 8% in annual rates of precipitation. After model calibration, the comparison of simulated and observed daily discharge rates from 1989 to 2003 led to a Nash‐Sutcliffe‐Index NS = 0.63. The results of this simulation study indicated that the amount of days with low‐flow conditions in the Ucker river will increase and groundwater recharge especially at forested areas will decrease in an order of magnitude of 1%–94%.     

The effect of rainfall on spatio‐temporal variability in cropping systems and duration of crop cover in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands

In the Northern Ethiopian Highlands, ca. 33% of the land is cropland, which is mainly cultivated by smallholders who based on indigenous knowledge plan their cropping system on the basis of spatio‐temporal variability in rainfall. To understand the relationships between rainfall variability and cropping systems, a field campaign was undertaken in the rainy season of 2009 when 118 farmers were interviewed at different locations with different environmental characteristics. Five cropping systems were identified, each having a distinct cropping season length and crop association. Cropping systems with shorter cropping seasons were generally on the valleysides, whereas longer cycles occurred in the valley bottoms. The length of cropping season also increased from north–northeast to south–southwest. Crop associations within cropping systems also varied with altitude. Cropping systems changed in response to variation in annual rainfall. This resulted in shifts of cropping systems at catchment and regional scales, with cropping systems having longer cropping seasons where there was greater annual precipitation. The results were scaled up to the whole region by modelling the spatial distribution of cropping systems at a 8 × 8 km² resolution over the period 1996–2009. The results indicate that indigenous knowledge is important when assessing the impact of climatic variability on agricultural production and that large inter‐annual variability in the duration of crop cover in Northern Ethiopia might be an important, although generally overlooked, explanatory factor for explaining previous land degradation cycles.     

Model‐based evaluation of agri‐environmental measures in the Federal State of Brandenburg (Germany) concerning N pollution of groundwater and surface water

GIS‐based modeling of soil‐crop interactions and hydrological processes is a valuable instrument to assess land‐use effects on N pollution of water resources from the agricultural sector. A case study is presented using spatial information on soils, climatic zones, land use, and distribution of agri‐environmental measures within the federal State of Brandenburg (Germany) to assess the reduction effect of EU‐funded measures on N pollution of water resources. In a first step, the area was classified concerning the risk for groundwater and surface‐water pollution. For this, spatially distributed model calculations of the soil‐solution exchange frequency were intersected to a vulnerability map for groundwater derived from geological data and zones of different transit times from the root zone into surface waters. In a second step, model calculations of water and N dynamics in the soil‐crop system for different crop and management systems were performed to calculate nitrate leaching from the root zone and to estimate the effect of present agri‐environmental measures to reduce N pollution on groundwater and surface waters. The results indicated that 75% of the agri‐environmental measures were placed in areas with low impact on groundwater and surface waters. Therefore, the effectiveness of the agri‐environmental measures concerning water‐protection aims was moderate.     

Contribution of nitrification and denitrification to the emission of N2O in a freeze‐thaw event in an agricultural soil

The amounts of N₂O released in freeze‐thaw events depend on site and freezing conditions and contribute considerably to the annual N₂O emissions. However, quantitative information on the N transformation rates in freeze‐thaw events is scarce. Our objectives were (1) to quantify gross nitrification in a Luvisol during a freeze‐thaw event, (2) to analyze the dynamics of the emissions of N₂O and N₂, (3) to quantify the contribution of nitrification and denitrification to the emission of N₂O, and (4) to determine whether the length of freezing and of thawing affects the C availability for the denitrification. ¹⁵NO was added to undisturbed soil columns, and the columns were subjected to 7 d of freezing and 5 d of thawing. N₂O emissions were determined in 3 h intervals, and the concentrations of ¹⁵N₂O and ¹⁵N₂ were determined at different times during thawing. During the 12 d experiment, 5.67 mg NO ‐N (kg soil)^–1 was produced, and 2.67 mg NO ‐N (kg soil)^–1 was lost. By assuming as a first approximation that production and loss occurred exclusively during thawing, the average nitrate‐production rate, denitrification rate, and immobilization rate were 1.13, 0.05, and 0.48 mg NO ‐N (kg soil)^–1 d^–1, respectively. Immediately after the beginning of the thawing, denitrification contributed by 83% to the N₂O production. The ratios of ¹⁵N₂ to ¹⁵N₂O during thawing were narrow and ranged from 1.5 to 0.6. For objective (4), homogenized soil samples were incubated under anaerobic conditions after different periods of freezing and thawing. The different periods did not affect the amounts of N₂ and N₂O produced in the incubation experiments. Further, addition of labile substrates gave either increases in the amounts of N₂O and N₂ produced or no changes which suggested that changes in nutrient availability due to freezing and thawing are only small.     

Fertilizer location modifies root zone salinity,root morphology,and water‐stress resistance of tree seedlings according to the watering regime in a dryland reforestation

There is a direct relationship between soil nutrient concentration in localized zones and root proliferation and elongation under well‐watered conditions. However, in field studies under semiarid conditions this relationship can change due to higher salt accumulation and soil dryness that affect root growth, water stress resistance, and seedling survival. We assessed the effect of different locations of fertilizer placement in the soil profile and water availability on root zone salinity, root development and ecophysiological responses of Quillaja saponaria Mol. after outplanting. A single dose (6 g L^?1) of controlled‐release nitrogen fertilizer (CRF_N) was placed at 0 cm (top layer), 15 cm (middle layer), or 30 cm (bottom layer) depth in the containers in a greenhouse, in addition to an unfertilized treatment (control). After 6 months, seedlings were transplanted to the field and subjected to weekly watering regimes (2 L plant^?1 and unwatered). Morphological and ecophysiological parameters were periodically measured on seedlings, as well as soil electrical conductivity (EC). After 1 year, the shoot : root ratio of unwatered seedlings decreased as a function of CRF_N placement depth, which was attributed to lower shoot growth and not to greater root growth. The root morphology of the bottom layer treatment was negatively affected by high EC in unwatered seedlings. Greater total root length and root volume of the middle layer treatment was found only when well‐watered; however, this did not contribute to improve physiological responses against water stress. The lowest EC and the highest photochemical efficiency, net photosynthesis, and stomatal conductance were shown by unfertilized seedlings, independent of water availability. Our findings suggest that varying depth of CRF_N placement does not contribute significantly to improve root growth under water restriction. Water supplements, independently of the CRF_N location in the substrate, contribute to decrease root zone salinity, and consequently, improve root volume growth.