GUIDELINE ON DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF EFFICACY EVALUATION TRIALS

This guideline is intended to provide general background information on the design and analysis of efficacy evaluation trials. The EPPO Guidelines for Efficacy Evaluation of Plant Protection Products provide more detailed instructions on such trials for individual host/pest combinations. The set-up of a trial is first considered (experimental design, lay-out of plots, use and location of untreated controls). The nature of the data obtained from the trial is then reviewed (principles for assessing the effects of products). Finally, suggestions are made on the statistical analysis of trial results. Appendix I gives examples of scales used in the EPPO guidelines.     

CABI/EPPO distribution maps of plant pests and plant diseases and their important role in plant quarantine

Never before has the need for accurate distribution data for plant pests been so important. CAB International (CABI) and EPPO are international organizations with a long history and strong involvement in collating and disseminating information on the global distribution of plant pests. Distribution Maps of Plant Pests and Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases, first published in 1951 and 1942, respectively, are respected, referenced sources of such data, expertly compiled and validated and used by plant health organizations around the world. They have been joint CABI/EPPO publications since 1997, and provide an essential complement to expanding knowledge on plant pest distribution. The Distribution Maps continue to be the most authoritative sources of information on the presence and extent of specific plant pests, sourced from the 4.5 million records in CAB Abstracts as a basis and numerous other sources. They also feed directly into CABI's Crop Protection Compendium (CPC) and EPPO's Plant Quarantine Data Retrieval System (PQR) databases. Their history, compilation and value are discussed.     

Plant pest risk information system (PPRIS) for USDA-APHIS: design of a functional prototype

The Plant Pest Risk Information System (PPRIS) is a computerized decision-support system for plant pest risk assessment in the USA, being developed for use by personnel of the US Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Plant Protection and Quarantine, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). PPRIS is being designed to retrieve information from such diverse sources as: EPPO PQ database, USDA-Agricultural Research Service's (ARS) Fungi on Plants and Plant Products database, bibliographic databases on compact disc media, on-line INTERNET databases and risk assessment documents. PPRIS will offer access to a wide variety of risk assessment processes. A PPRIS evaluation prototype was created in Visual Basic ver. 3.0 operating in a Windows 3.1 environment. EPPO-PQ and ARS-Fungi databases were imported and stored in ORACLE ver. 6.0. Query functionality of the prototype was tested by retrieving information from the two internal ORACLE databases. The PPRIS evaluation prototype provides interfaces to the CABPEST bibliographic compact disc and to communication software for on-line database searches. Three risk assessment processes were incorporated into the evaluation prototype: the decision sheet, generic risk assessment and enhanced hazard identification. The evaluation prototype also includes access to Wordperfect for Windows through the Windows Program Manager for storage and retrieval of risk assessment documents.     

A methodology for preparing a list of recommended regulated non‐quarantine pests (RNQPs)

The concept of ‘regulated non‐quarantine pest’ (RNQP) was introduced in the revised text of the FAO International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) approved in 1997. Measures against quarantine pests (exclusion, eradication, containment) aim to prevent unacceptable economic, environmental and social impacts resulting from the introduction and/or spread of these pests. On the contrary, the concept of RNQPs is intended to prevent an unacceptable economic impact on the intended use of plants for planting by pests that are already present in the area. RNQPs have been introduced in the new EU plant health regulation, in line with available international standards. This regulation entered into force in December 2016 and will be implemented in the following 3 years. In this context, EPPO agreed to undertake a 2‐year project on RNQPs: the EU Quality Pest Project. The objective of this project was to develop a methodology and then to apply this methodology to a list of about 1400 pest–host combinations to identify which should be recommended as RNQPs. This methodology is presented in this paper, as well as the main issues discussed during its development.     

Situation of Ralstonia solanacearum in the EPPO region in 1997

In the early 1990s, Ralstonia solanacearum , an EPPO A2 quarantine pest which previously occurred only sporadically in some of the southern Member Countries, caused a number of outbreaks of potato brown rot over a wider area in the EPPO region. The National Plant Protection Organizations of the EPPO Member Countries concerned have taken action to eradicate the pest, and in particular the European Union has taken joint action through a Control Directive. Eradication has been successful in many cases, but is complicated by the fact that R. solanacearum can persist on wild Solanum dulcamara and be dispersed by water. EPPO has collected information from its Member Countries through the period of the outbreaks and eradication, and presents in this article an overall view and a detailed country-by-country situation.     

EPPO database on diagnostic expertise: http://dc.eppo.org

In 2004, the EPPO Council expressed profound concerns about the decreasing expertise in plant protection and declared a state of emergency for Plant Health (‘Madeira declaration’). As diagnostics is one of the scientific fields which are vital for sustaining sound plant health policies, a questionnaire was launched and all EPPO member countries were asked to provide information about their diagnostic expertise, focusing on regulated pests or pests which may present a risk to the EPPO region. In 2006, results of the questionnaire were analysed and compiled by the EPPO Secretariat into a new database. This database now contains detailed information (contact addresses, quality programmes, and accreditations) for 80 diagnostic laboratories from 28 EPPO member countries. More than 500 experts are now registered with details about their diagnostic expertise (pests diagnosed and methods used). The EPPO database on diagnostic expertise can be freely accessed on the Internet: http://dc.eppo.org .     

An EPPO study on wood commodities other than round wood,sawn wood and manufactured items

This paper summarizes the approach of a recent EPPO study and some of its key outputs. The study was commissioned to aid pest risk analysis and the development of risk management measures for movements of woodchips and other similar commodities. These wood commodities represent a significant pathway for the introduction of pests of trees into new areas, and the pathway is becoming more important as trade in such commodities increases. An indication of the relative risk of different commodities for different types of pest was proposed as a conclusion of the study. More information is now needed on the quantities and nature of the material being moved into and within the EPPO region, and the treatments to which it has been subjected. This may not be clear from commercial documentation and trade data so national plant protection organizations (NPPOs) are encouraged to gather and share such information from inspections of consignments.     

International standards for the diagnosis of regulated pests

For the last 10 years, the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) has run a European Panel on diagnostics, which has developed regional standards on diagnostic protocols. Nearly 80 such standards have now been approved, and are in active use in EPPO countries. In 2003, the Commission for Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) of FAO, in reviewing global needs for International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), recognized that there is a strong interest in developing diagnostic protocols for all contracting parties to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). Such protocols would support the harmonization of detection and identification procedures worldwide, contribute to greater transparency and comparability in the diagnostics for regulated pests, and assist in the resolution of disputes between trading partners. In addition, such protocols would be very useful in technical assistance programmes. In 2004, the CPM adopted a mechanism for rapid development of ISPMs in specific areas, particularly suitable for diagnostic protocols. A Technical Panel was accordingly established to develop protocols for specific pests and meets on an annual basis. A format for international diagnostic protocols was adopted in 2006 and a list of priority pests was established. In 2003, EPPO initiated a new programme on quality management and accreditation for plant pest laboratories and Standards are now also being developed in this area. In 2006, a survey of existing diagnostic capacities in EPPO member countries was undertaken and a database on diagnostic expertise was created.     

A quantitative model for trade pathway analysis of plant pest entry and transfer to a host in European Union territory

A quantitative pathway model, QPAFood, has been designed to support risk assessment for plant pest entry into European Union (EU) territory on a range of edible plant commodities via trade flows. The model calculates the distribution of an imported infested/infected commodity along a pathway into and within the EU from source countries, based on Eurostat data and other data/information. The model determines the implications of global trade pathways for the potential arrival of the infested commodity in the EU28 Member States. Within each Member State, the calculation proceeds by distributing the commodity according to uses, notably retail or processing, to the vulnerable area of commercial host crops determined in each NUTS2 region and then quantifies the consequent potential for pest–host contact which could lead to pest transfer. Annual and monthly estimates of contact risk are tabulated and visualized for Member States and NUTS2 regions. The model was developed originally for the European Food Safety Authority using four case studies of specific pest–commodity combinations. These pests had relatively limited host ranges and the model has now been extended in the context of the EC FP7 DROPSA project for the multiple commodity pathways associated with the highly polyphagous fruit pest Drosophila suzukii.     

Outcomes of the EPPO project on quarantine pests for forestry1

The EPPO Project on Quarantine Pests for Forestry ran from 2000 to 2005. It mainly focused on the risks from forests pests present in the former USSR, particularly in its Asian part, with regard to their possible impacts on the non‐Asian parts of the EPPO region. A special EPPO Panel, called the Panel on Quarantine Pests for Forestry, was created to implement this project. The EPPO Secretariat collected short information on the taxonomy, geographical distribution, host plants, biology and impact of 1365 pests and on the taxonomy and geographical distribution of 653 main forest trees on the territory of the former USSR. In the process of prioritization, which took place over 10 meetings in various countries in the EPPO region, the Panel selected species that were more likely to present high risk for the non‐Asian part of the EPPO region. For these species, more detailed data were collected and datasheets were prepared. The Panel performed Pest Risk Analysis for 45 species of pests and recommended 19 of them for inclusion into the EPPO lists of pests recommended for regulation. Possible phytosanitary measures have been selected in the process of Pest Risk Management to reduce the risk of introduction of these 19 pests into endangered areas. The Panel has begun preparing Commodity standards for wood and woody plants.     

CAPRA: the EPPO Computer Assisted PRA scheme*

The EPPO Secretariat has developed computer software for Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) within the EC 7th Framework Programme PRATIQUE (Enhancements of Pest Risk Analysis Techniques) and with the support of the EPPO Panels. The software, Computer Assisted PRA (CAPRA), aims to assist pest risk analysts to run the EPPO Decision‐support scheme for pest risk analysis [EPPO Standard PM 5/3(5) Decision‐support scheme for quarantine pests], and other decision‐support schemes. It is freely avaliable on the EPPO website or on http://capra.eppo.org/ .     

EPPO Study on the Risk of Imports of Plants for Planting: description and details of the first outcomes

EPPO member countries requested that a study be conducted to identify and better address the risks presented by the trade of plants for planting, which has led to numerous introductions of pests into the EPPO region in recent years. Concerns were raised about the efficacy of the current plant health systems in place in the EPPO region to deal with the risks presented by plants for planting. The EPPO Study on the Risk of Imports of Plants for Planting was launched by the EPPO Council in 2010. The first part of the Study was completed in spring 2012. It was published as EPPO Technical Document 1061 ( http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/EPPO_Study_on_Plants_for_planting.pdf ). Examples of pest outbreaks in the EPPO region suspected to be caused by international trade of plants for planting were analyzed. This analysis identified characteristics of the pest/crop/trade patterns associated with the risks of importing pests. These characteristics are described as criteria that are intended to be used in a screening process to enable identification of commodities that require an assessment prior to import in the EPPO region. The further elaboration of the screening process is briefly outlined.     

Improving the prevention of alien plant invasion in the EPPO region: the need to focus on highly invasive plants with (still) limited distribution – examples from Israel

Prevention (of invasion) is the most efficient strategy to control invasive alien plants (IAPs). This requires that potentially invasive plant taxa not yet introduced into regions where they could become invasive are identified as early as possible. Therefore, alongside the best known and already widespread IAPs it is crucial to highlight highly invasive plant taxa whose distribution is still limited. It becomes even more important to consider those taxa when some are recommended as ornamental/useful species outside their native range. This paper provides six examples of IAPs whose invasiveness has been established but which are still restricted to a single EPPO country (Israel). While horizon‐scanning studies have produced valuable alert lists, mainly for temperate Europe, EPPO pest risk analyses have focused on IAPs that are widespread outside the EPPO region. Therefore it is suggested that more attention is given to IAPs that pose a threat to Mediterranean, semiarid and arid areas within the EPPO region but that so far have remained largely unnoticed because of their present limited distribution. Awareness of these species must be urgently raised before they spread to new EPPO countries. The elaboration of a database compiling information about IAPs characterized by a restricted distribution in each EPPO country is discussed. The examples presented in this paper are most relevant to EPPO countries with a dry (Mediterranean, semiarid and arid) climate.     

EPPO Workshop for Heads of Plant Quarantine Services of Central and Eastern European Countries Risks presented to the forests of the EPPO region by quarantine pests Sankt-Peterburg (RU), 1997–10–14/17

The main technical theme of the 2nd EPPO Worksh op for Heads of Plant Quarantine Services of central and eastern European countries was the risks presented to the forests of the EPPO region by quarantine pests. Measures currently recommended by EPPO concentrate on A1 quarantine pests, not present in the region. Nevertheless, measures applied by many European countries, and in particular by the EU, target non-European forest pests. This presents a particular problem for Russia, since its territory lies partly in Europe and partly in northern Asia and the export of forest products is very important for its economy. Against the background of the new global developments in plant protection (revision of the IPPC, SPS agreement), the Workshop opened the question whether there are forest pests in northern Asia which present a risk to Europe (and vice versa). Recognizing that one of the main non-European pests targeted by the regulations of European countries is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus , the Workshop took note of the fact that this pest does not occur in Russia. Certain known or potential vectors of B. xylophilus in the genus Monochamus do occur in Russia, but also occur widely throughout the palaearctic region. The forest fauna of northern Russia remains fairly homogeneous from Europe to the River Yenisei, and then becomes progressively more different. Nevertheless, specific pests from this eastern region presenting a risk to Europe remain to be identified and subjected to pest risk analysis.     

Detailing Köppen–Geiger climate zones at sub‐national to continental scale: a resource for pest risk analysis

The widely used Köppen–Geiger climate classification system can inform judgements of establishment during pest categorizations and systems of simplified pest risk assessment. Such processes allow national plant protection organizations to quickly identify plant pests of potential regulatory concern. Judging whether a pest can establish is a key factor in determining whether a pest satisfies the definition of a quarantine pest. Climate is often a significant factor influencing where species can establish. Here, we provide a resource that reports the Köppen–Geiger climate classification at a range of spatial scales from sub‐national to continental for the period 1986–2010 in an accessible table. The data is provided as a resource for pest risk analysis to inform and support rapid decision‐making. An online appendix is provided showing the number of grid cells in each of the 31 Köppen–Geiger climate types in 417 regions across the globe at country level or less. Thirteen climate types occur within the European Union (EU), the most common is ‘temperate oceanic’ occupying 48% of EU grid cells. Twenty‐four of 31 climate types occur within the EPPO region; the most common is ‘continental, uniform precipitation with cold summer’, occupying 35% of EPPO grid cells.     

Towards the construction of a resistance risk evaluation scheme

Pesticide resistance management needs an indication of the risk of resistance developing in pests against pesticide applications. This paper describes an evaluation system for the ranking of these risks. The term pests includes all organisms which are causing economic damage in agriculture, including weeds and plant pathogens. The system distinguishes six broad risk categories. It is based on expert judgement of answers to a maximum of ten questions on crop husbandry, pest biology and pest control. The system has been developed for registration purposes in The Netherlands, and is currently being discussed within the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO). ©1997 SCI     

Risikoanalyse von gebietsfremden Pflanzen—Das neue Konzept der EPPO

The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO) aims to prevent the entry and spread of organisms harmful to both cultivated and wild plants. Basing their activities on those of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the International Plant Protection Convention, the EPPO is developing a new concept for invasive alien species and ‘plants as pests’. A pest risk analysis is necessary in most cases to identify which organisms should be regulated and how. In accordance with the International Plant Protection Convention, an EPPO risk assessment standard exists for this purpose which has now been revised to be applicable also to potentially invasive alien plants and assess the effects they pose to the uncultivated environment. In 2003, the EPPO sent a questionnaire to its 44 member states asking for plants which have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced and are considered invasive. The member countries reported hundreds of species, of which 42 were selected for further assessment. This may result in recommendations for regulations and measures against the introduction and spread of all or some of these plants.     

Importing plants into the Netherlands: an assessment of the risk of plant parasitic nematodes and a survey on their entry with adhering soil

Few plant parasitic nematodes are currently included in the European Union (EU) regulated pest lists. However, many plant parasitic nematodes not present in the EU are known to be damaging and present a risk to Europe. Therefore a study was performed to assess the risk of importing plant parasitic nematodes with the soil attached to plants for planting, with emphasis on plants in pots. Prior to the survey, a list of harmful plant parasitic nematodes not present within Europe was prepared per continent based on a literature review. This resulted in a Risk List of 26 species. Additionally, over a 3‐year period a survey was carried out on plants for planting imported to the Netherlands with adhering soil, focusing on all plant parasitic nematodes and with special attention to the nematodes on the Risk List. A total of 258 soil samples were studied, originating from 54 different plant species and 20 different countries. Despite the small number of samples, several quarantine nematodes and species from the Risk List were detected, including new nematode–plant combinations. This survey illustrates that plants with adhering soil can be a pathway for the introduction of listed nematodes, including those from the Risk List, to the EU/EPPO region. This information might encourage a more risk‐based approach to performing import inspections.     

PM 8/6 (1) Betula

Specific scope

The purpose of the EPPO Standard on Betula is to recommend to EPPO Member Governments the phytosanitary measures which they should use or require for Betula plants and plant products moving in international trade to prevent the introduction and spread of quarantine pests. Some of these recommendations are addressed to all EPPO Member Governments, others are addressed only to countries considered to face a certain level of risk from the introduction and spread of the regulated pests concerned. All these recommendations were derived from:

• EPPO Standards PM 1/2 (EPPO A1 and A2 Lists) and the former EPPO Standards PM 2 (pest‐specific phytosanitary measures), or
• Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) carried out or reviewed by EPPO, or
• the Working Party on Phytosanitary Regulations.

For wood packaging material, recommendations are based on ISPM 15 Regulation of wood packaging material in international trade.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2017‐09.