Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers applied during successive crop seasons on growth and nitrate accumulation in lettuce

A romaine-type lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cv. Corsica was cultivated during three successive crop seasons (late-spring, late-autumn and late-winter) in the same soil of an experimental greenhouse in S.W. Peloponnese, Greece. Seven long-term fertilization treatments were tested for their effect on plant growth and nitrate concentration in the external lettuce leaves. Treatments included: three different doses of organic fertilization (composted sheep manure) applied at the start of each crop season, three different doses of inorganic N fertilization applied via fertigation during each crop season, and a control treatment in which no fertilizer was applied. A drip irrigation system was used to water all plants. The highest nitrate levels were observed in the medium and maximum inorganic fertilization treatments (572–664 mg kg⁻¹) in all crop seasons. They were significantly higher compared to the respective organic fertilization treatments (253–435 mg kg⁻¹) and all other fertilization treatments (148–435 mg kg⁻¹). Crop season affected lettuce growth more than nitrate accumulation in the lettuce leaves: lettuce biomass production was the smallest and most uniform in the late-autumn season and did not respond to the fertilization treatments tested (ranging from 409 to 439 g plant⁻¹), while in the late-spring season biomass production was the highest and most variable (561–841 g plant⁻¹), it correlated with nitrate concentration in the leaves and in the medium and maximum inorganic fertilizer doses it significantly exceeded production from all other fertilization treatments (827–841 g plant⁻¹). Following the three crop seasons the residual availability of N, P and K was clearly enhanced in the soil receiving the organic compared to the inorganic fertilization. Nitrate concentration in lettuce leaves was far below the upper limits set by the European Commission in all fertilization treatments throughout the three crop seasons, a result attributed mainly to the sufficient level of light intensity and duration throughout the year in Southern Greece.     

Effect of nitrogen form and radiation on growth and mineral concentration of two Brassica species

Three greenhouse experiments were carried out to determine the growth, yield, nitrate, total N and S concentration in shoots, and water uptake of hydroponically grown Brassica rapa L. subsp. nipposinica var. chinoleifera and Brassica juncea L. In each experiment, daily photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) level was 5.0 mol m⁻² (low), 6.8 mol m⁻² (medium) or 9.0 mol m⁻² (high). Plants were supplied with nutrient solutions having equal N concentrations of 11 mM in different forms: 100% NH₄, 50% NH₄ + 50% NO₃, and 100% NO₃. Nitrogen supplied as 100% NH₄ reduced fresh and dry shoot biomass, leaf area, and leaf number in both Brassica species, especially at low and medium PAR levels. In both Brassica species, S concentrations were highest, while nitrate concentrations were lowest in leaves of plants grown at N supplied as 100% NH₄. No differences in leaf nitrate concentrations were observed between 50% NH₄ + 50% NO₃ and 100% NO₃ treatments. Low and high PAR levels increased the nitrate concentrations and decreased the N/S ratio in leaves of both crops compared to medium PAR level. Fresh shoot biomass was maximized in Brassica rapa when PAR level was above the medium value and nitrate was supplied in the nutrient solution as NO₃ or as a mixture of 50% NO₃ and 50% NH₄. The highest fresh shoot biomass of Brassica juncea was observed in all nutrient solution treatments at high PAR level.     

Accumulation of phytotoxic organic acids in reused nutrient solution during hydroponic cultivation of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

Proper nutrient solution management in the root zone is the first consideration for the adoption of a closed hydroponic system. Plant roots often exude numerous organic acids, which are known to inhibit growth. To investigate the accumulation of these phytotoxic organic acids as root exudates, lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was hydroponically grown in reused nutrient solution. Organic acids were extracted with diethyl ether from the reused nutrient solutions (RNS), root residues, and activated charcoal (AC) then quantified by GC/MS. Five individual organic acids were identified from the root residues and seven from the reused nutrient solutions. After 90 days of lettuce cultivation, in the treated AC in 3RNS, benzoic, phenylacetic, cinnamic, p-hydroxybenzoic, lauric, phthalic, vanillic, palmitic, and stearic acids were identified. In contrast, little or no organic acids were detected in the 3RNS treated with AC (3RNS/AC). Artificially applied pure organic acids ranging from 25 to 200 μM inhibited lettuce growth in a concentration-dependent manner. Lettuce growth was also greatly reduced in the nutrient solutions containing a externally applied, simulated mixture of the organic acids as in the 3RNS. Lettuce growth was not inhibited following the addition of AC (2.5 g/L) to the nutrient solution containing the mixture of organic acids. Our results demonstrated that organic acids were accumulated in reused nutrient solutions and were phytotoxic to lettuce growth. Also, this study showed that the addition of AC reduces the phytotoxic effects by eliminating the organic acids.     

Influence of nitrogen form,growing season and sulfur fertilization on yield and the content of nitrate and vitamin C of broccoli

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of nitrogen (N) sources, sulfur (S) and growing seasons on yield and the content of nitrate and vitamin C of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. spp. Italica). Three N fertilizers (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and urea) were side-dressed while two levels of sulfur (0.0 and 0.5%) were sprayed on broccoli plants grown in both spring and fall-winter seasons. Here, we report on the interaction between N-source and S supply, yield, and nitrate content and discuss the relevance of this interaction in relation to crop-management strategies under different growing seasons. In the fall-winter season, broccoli yield of “Sultan F1”, “Majestic F1” and “Marathon F1” were 21.23%, 128.52% and 88.53% higher than spring season. Furthermore, S application increased the yield by 9% average over growing seasons, cultivars and N-forms. Also, application of urea as N-source decreased the yield by approximately 13–15% than other N-sources. High curd nitrate accumulation was attributed with spring season and “Marathon F1”, however, less accumulation was found in fall-winter season and “Majestic F1”. Fertilizers containing N forms that not ready available to the crop, i.e. ammonium sulfate and urea, decreased nitrate than fast N-release fertilizer (ammonium nitrate), but their effect on the yield was different. Highest yield with low content of nitrate was achieved when ammonium sulfate combined with sulfur were used during fall-winter season, especially in cv. “Marathon F1”. N-source and sulfur application had no effect on vitamin C, conversely, it was affected by growing season and tested genotypes. Therefore, additions of ammonium sulfate and sulfur application in the field of broccoli were essential to produce higher yield with good quality curds that pose minimum health risk to human.     

Influence of sulfur supply,ammonium nitrate ratio,and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization on growth and composition of Chinese chive

Tissue concentrations of phytochemicals formed by Allium species may be influenced by plant nutrient supply or rhizosphere microorganism activity. To test these relations, three plant nutritional factors were varied in two experiments with Chinese chive [Allium tuberosum]: (a) increasing sulfur concentrations in the substrate, (b) two ratios of ammonium to nitrate in supply, and (c) inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Shoot dry weight, nutrient composition (nitrate, N, P, S), and organosulfur compounds (measured indirectly as pyruvic acid) were determined.     

Growth,yield and essential oil content of three cultivars of basil grown under different levels of nitrogen in the field

A field experiment was conducted in Southern Italy to investigate the effect of different nitrogen (N) rates (0, 100 or 300 kg ha⁻¹) on the number of branchings and leaves per plant, plant height, yield of above-ground fresh biomass, total leaf area, dry weight, leaf-to-stem ratio, leaf essential oil content and the essential oil quality at commercial harvest (full bloom) of the three cultivars of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.): (i) “Mostruoso mammouth” (MM); (ii) “Genovese profumatissimo” (GP); (iii) “Napoletano a foglia di lattuga” (NFL). Nitrogen fertilization up to 300 kg ha⁻¹ increased yield of above-ground and leaf fresh biomass, leaf essential oil yield, but it did not affect leaf-to-stem ratio, plant height and the number of branchings per plant. The increase in essential oil yield induced by N fertilization depended on an increase in both leaf essential oil concentration and leaf biomass. The increase in LAI with increasing N fertilization was due to an increase in leaf number per plant rather than in individual leaf expansion. The cultivar GP was different in morphology from MM and NFL, since it had greater leaf number and plant height, but lower leaf-to-stem ratio and LAI. The physiological efficiency of N use (PE) in producing above-ground biomass was not related to N application whereas PE in producing essential oil (PE-oil) tended to increase with increasing levels of N applied. With regard to the effect of the cultivar, GP was less efficient in N use for oil production than MM and NFL since PE-oil of GP was lower while leaf N and PE-biomass were higher than the other cultivars. NFL was the richest in methyl chavicol but the lowest in linalool, whereas MM and GP contained linalool and eugenol.     

The effect of nitrogen source and concentration,medium pH and buffering on in vitro shoot growth and rooting in Eucalyptus marginata

This work examined the effect of nitrogen source and medium buffering on the micropropagation of Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm. The number of shoots was increased when media contained 2-(N-morpholino) ethanesulfonic acid (MES) but this increase was minor and only applied to one of the two clones tested. Highest root production was obtained when the medium contained 7.5 mM nitrogen in a ratio of 2NO₃⁻:1NH₄⁺ and was buffered with 10 mM MES. In the rooting medium the pH was influenced most significantly by the nitrogen source, and then whether the medium was buffered. The media pH remained relatively constant when nitrate was the sole nitrogen source and this was assisted by the addition of 10 mM MES. Lower concentrations (<10 mM) of MES were less effective in buffering media over a four-week culture period in both shoot multiplication and rooting medium.     

Allelopathic effect of ginger on seed germination and seedling growth of soybean and chive

The rhizome, stem and leaf aqueous extracts of ginger were assayed at 10, 20, 40, and 80 g l⁻¹ for their effects on seed germination and early seedling growth of soybean and chive. All aqueous extracts at all concentrations inhibited seed germination, seedling growth, water uptake and lipase activity of soybean and chive compared with the control, and the degree of inhibition increased with the incremental extracts concentration. The degree of toxicity of different ginger plant parts can be classified in order of decreasing inhibition as stem > leaf > rhizome. The results of this study suggest that rhizome, stem and leaf of ginger contain water-soluble allelochemicals which could inhibit seed germination and seedling growth of soybean and chive. The rhizome is the main harvested part of ginger. The residue (mainly stems and leaves) of the ginger plant should be removed from the field so as to diminish its inhibitory effect. Further work is needed to specify and verify the allelochemicals produced by this plant. The results of this study suggest that ginger allelochemicals are heterotoxic, and thus intercropping should not be practiced using ginger.     

Silicon supplementation ameliorated the inhibition of photosynthesis and nitrate metabolism by cadmium (Cd) toxicity in Cucumis sativus L.

The effects of silicon (Si) application on plant growth, pigments, photosynthetic parameters, chlorophyll a (Chl a) fluorescence parameters and nitrogen metabolism were studied in Cucumis sativus L. under cadmium (Cd) toxicity. Compared with the control, 100 μM CdCl₂ treatment caused dramatic accumulation of Cd in cucumber leaves, greatly induced chlorosis, and the transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis indicated that Cd treatment cucumber chloroplast showed obvious swollen, thylakoids and chloroplast membrane were seriously damaged, and could not be observed clearly. Application of Si reversed the chlorosis, protected the chloroplast from disorganization, and significantly increased the pigments contents, which might be mainly responsible for the higher photosynthetic rate and accumulation of biomass under Cd stress. Further investigation of chlorophyll a fluorescence indicated that Cd treatment decreasing photosynthesis was not due to stomatal restriction, while was closely related integrity damage or function lost of the photosynthetic machinery which can be concluded from the higher intercellular CO₂ concentration (Ci) and lower F_v/F_m and ΦPSII. Application of Si alleviated the inhibited level of photosynthesis and F_v/F_m and ΦPSII by Cd, which might imply that Si plays important roles in protecting photosynthetic machinery from damaging. The Cd treatment also greatly inhibited the enzymes of nitrogen metabolism including nitrogen reductase (NR), glutamine synthetase (GS), glutamate synthase (GOGAT) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), and Si supply decreased the inhibiting effects of Cd.     

Differences in onion pungency due to cultivars,growth environment,and bulb sizes

This study was conducted to determine the effects of genetic and environmental factors on onion pungency, estimated as pyruvic acid levels. Genetically identical clones were grown at three different field locations and in a greenhouse. Onion pungency was significantly influenced by clone type, location, and their interaction. Genetic differences were the major determining factor of onion pungency (81.3% of total variation). Location, including all environmental factors, and the clone × location interaction comprised 11.4% and 7.3% of the total variation, respectively. The magnitude of the pungency difference among field-grown onions was about 1.5 μmol/ml. The pungency levels were not positively correlated with soil sulfur nutrition levels, which ranged from 16 to 97 ppm. Within clones, onion pungency levels were loosely inversely correlated with increasing bulb weight. The clones proved to have the most uniform pungency (8% CV), followed by hybrids (10.6% CV) and open-pollinated cultivars (21.3% CV). We have demonstrated that genetic factors were determinant of onion pungency. Environmental factors influenced pungency to a lesser degree. Therefore, choosing cultivars with low pungency, ideal growing environments and proper sulfur nutrition control, are key factor in producing sweet onions.     

Effects of irrigation with treated wastewater on olive tree growth,yield and leaf mineral elements at short term

In arid regions, such as Tunisia, the reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) in agriculture can be a sustainable solution for water scarcity. A two-year field experiment was conducted in order to investigate the short-term effects of TWW on olive growth, yield and concentration of total nitrogen (N_t), potassium (K), phosphorous (P), and heavy metals (i.e. Zn, Mn, Pb and Cd) in olive leaves. Olive trees were subjected to the following irrigation treatments: (i) trees irrigated with well water (WW) and (ii) trees irrigated with treated wastewater (TWW). For both treatments, the TWW and WW were applied at a rate of 4.5 m³ day⁻¹ tree⁻¹ (5000 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). After two years, non-significant injuries caused by salts and/or heavy metals were observed on shoot growth of trees irrigated with TWW. The application of TWW significantly increased concentration of N_t, P and K in the leaves, whereas heavy metals (Zn and Mn) showed a significant increase only after the second year of irrigation.     

The effect of nitrogen fertilization on plant growth and the nitrate content of leaves and roots of parsley in the Mediterranean region

Curly-leafed and turnip-rooted parsley have recently been introduced to Greece as alternative herbs within the programme for crop diversification. Because the response of these subspecies to nitrogen (N) application under the warm climatic conditions of the Mediterranean region is unknown, both were cultivated over three consecutive years in order to evaluate their yield potential and quality (in terms of nitrate content) in relation to nitrogen application in comparison with the traditionally cultivated plain-leafed subspecies. Nitrogen was applied as ammonium nitrate in the form of liquid feeds at rates of 30–450 mg kg⁻¹. Foliage and root yield increased with N application up to a level of 150 mg kg⁻¹ and the nitrate content of the tissues was low. Increasing N application rates to 300 or 450 mg kg⁻¹ did not cause a further increase in yield, but the nitrate content of the tissues increased. In view of health concerns with respect to human nitrate intake and environmental threats posed by excessive N application, it is concluded that the optimum level of ammonium nitrate application under local conditions should be 150 mg kg⁻¹. Overall, all three subspecies responded to N in a similar way in terms of yield and nitrate content.     

Effect of hydrogen cyanamide,mineral oil and thidiazuron in combination with tip pruning on bud break,shoot growth and yield in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’, ‘Col de Damme Noire’ and ‘Noire de Caromb’ figs

Commercial fig production is relatively new to the Mediterranean-type climate Western Cape Province of South Africa. A lack of lateral branch development impedes tree structure development and therefore adequate yields of quality fruit. The chemical rest breaking agents, Lift^® (thidiazuron 3 g L⁻¹) at 6%, Dormex^® (hydrogen cyanamide, 520 g L⁻¹) at 4%, mineral oil at 4% and a combination of mineral oil and Dormex^® at 2% each were evaluated in a split plot design in combination with tip-pruning vs. no-pruning to overcome apical dominance and increase complexity (Experiment 1). During the 2008/2009 season, an additional investigation was conducted to evaluate the use of thidiazuron and hydrogen cyanamide for harvest scheduling (Experiment 2). Dormex^® at 3% and Lift^® at 6%, were applied to dormant trees on 30 June 2008, 3 August 2008, 15 August 2008 or 30 August 2008. In general, Lift^® can be used to increase the number of buds breaking in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ and ‘Col de Damme Noire’, while tip pruning decreased bud break with a resultant increase in shoot length. Dormex^® and oil combined decreased bud break in these two cultivars but was effective on ‘Noire de Caromb’. Where bud break was increased the resultant N + 1 shoot length was decreased. RBAs increased the number of fruit in both the breba and main crop of ‘Noire de Caromb’, but decreased fruit size of the breba crop. Our data are not conclusive as to what the reason for low lateral bud break might be but leans towards strong AD in seasons with 400 Utah CU or more, but might include some delayed foliation response in seasons with less than 200 Utah CH.     

Cultivar-based fruit size in olive depends on different tissue and cellular processes throughout growth

In drupe fruits, in addition to fruit size, the proportions of mesocarp and endocarp tissues are critical objectives for fruit quality, crop production and management. The olive fruit is a typical drupe, with cultivars which show a wide range in both fruit size and the proportions of mesocarp and endocarp. Characterizing the roles of tissue and cellular processes in producing genetically based fruit size variability is necessary for crop improvement, as well as deepening our understanding of fruit developmental physiology. This study used microscope image analysis to evaluate cell number and size, the growth of mesocarp and endocarp tissues, and their developmental timing in producing fruit size among six olive cultivars with a large range of fruit size. We found that cultivar mesocarp and endocarp size increased linearly with fruit size, with larger sizes favoring an increasingly greater mesocarp/endocarp ratio. Within the mesocarp, cultivar-based fruit size related directly to cell number and was established soon after bloom by cell division rate. In spite of different cell division rates, all cultivars showed similar timing of cell division activity, with the majority of cells produced in the two months after bloom but, surprisingly, a substantial number of cells formed during the following 6 months. Cell expansion was high throughout fruit growth and an important factor in achieving final fruit size, but cell size did not differ among cultivars at any time. We can conclude that fruit size differences among olive cultivars are due at the tissue level to both mesocarp and endocarp sizes and at the cellular level to cell division throughout fruit growth. Furthermore, since cell size is consistent among cultivars in spite of variable cell division, it is likely that cultivar differences in cell expansion accompany those in cell division.     

The impact of sodium chloride on root growth,cell division,and interphase silver-stained nucleolar organizer regions (AgNORs) in root tip cells of Allium cepa L.

To evaluate genetic damage, parameters including root growth, chromosomal aberrations, and interphase silver-stained nucleolar organizer regions (AgNORs) in root tip cells of Allium cepa L. were investigated after treatment with NaCl (40–160 mM). The results showed that NaCl caused a decrease in root growth. All concentrations of NaCl showed an inhibitory effect on dividing cells in root tips of A. cepa L. and caused a reduction in mitotic index values. Upon exposure to NaCl, roots exhibited various mitotic abnormalities, including c-mitosis, anaphase bridge, and chromosome stickiness. In addition, interphase cells with micronuclei, budding nuclei, and unequal-sized nuclei were observed. Moreover, total cell aberration increased with increasing NaCl concentration. For AgNOR parameters, the average number of AgNORs per nucleus decreased in roots treated at all NaCl concentrations. The singular AgNOR area and whole AgNOR area in the nucleus containing 1–3 AgNORs were inversely proportional to NaCl concentrations.     

Effect of smoke-water and a smoke-isolated butenolide on the growth and genotoxicity of commercial onion

Smoke-water and a biologically active butenolide compound (3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one) derived from burning plant material, show stimulating effects on a number of agricultural and horticultural crops. In these trials, onion (Allium cepa L.) plants were treated (drenched) with either a 1:500 (v/v) smoke-water solution or a butenolide solution of 10⁻¹⁰ M under greenhouse conditions. Onion plants supplied with smoke-water and butenolide solution exhibited a significantly greater number of leaves, increased leaf length, and a higher fresh and dry leaf weight than untreated plants at 175 days after seed sowing (DASS) (third harvest). In addition, smoke-water and butenolide-treated onion plants exhibited a significantly higher bulb diameter and bulb weight than untreated plants, when these plants were harvested at 175 DASS. Overall, smoke-water was more effective than butenolide and achieved the highest harvest index. Genotoxicity was not detected in the bulbs of onion when they were treated with either smoke-water or butenolide.     

Somatic embryo,adventitious root and shoot regeneration in in vitro grown quince leaves as influenced by treatments of different length with growth regulators

The purpose of this work was to acquire more information on the capacity of in vitro grown quince (Cydonia oblonga Mill.) leaves to simultaneously regenerate somatic embryos, adventitious roots and shoots, and to evaluate the variations induced on regeneration response by treatments of different length with growth regulators. After 2 days of liquid treatment with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, the leaves were cultured for 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21 days on gelled growth medium containing the basal components of Murashige and Skoog and kinetin (Kin) 4.5 μM + naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) 0.5 μM. At the end of each treatment period, the leaves were cultured on a transfer medium in the absence or in the presence of a growth regulator combination represented by N⁶-benzylaminopurine (BA) 2.66 μM + gibberellic acid 0.58 μM + indole-3-butyric acid 0.3 μM. The culture period for all the treatments was fixed to 52 days.     

Aluminium-induced effects on growth,morphogenesis and oxidative stress reactions in in vitro cultures of quince

The effects of Al³⁺ [supplied as Al₂(SO₄)₃·18H₂O] addition to culture media (pH 4.0) on growth, morphogenesis (in leaf explants), and oxidative stress reactions in in vitro cultures of ‘BA 29’ quince were investigated. Aluminium (Al 0.5 mM) strongly inhibited shoot growth in the proliferation and rooting phases (Al 2.2 mM), reduced shoot proliferation (Al 1.1 mM), and induced tissue browning. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was increased in shoot cultures supplemented with 2 mM Al. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content of shoots was strongly increased by Al during proliferation (starting from Al 1.7 mM) and rooting (already at Al 1.1 mM), thus serving as a good ‘marker’ for Al toxicity. Even a low concentration of Al (0.5 mM) in the shoot induction medium was found to inhibit shoot regeneration. When standard (Al 0) shoot induction medium was used, leaf explant growth was only reduced by 2.2 mM Al in the subsequent growth phases. Following a preliminary selection for their growth on Al-enriched media, 82 potentially Al-tolerant quince somaclones were selected for further trials.     

Effect of 24-epibrassinolide on growth,yield, antioxidant system and cadmium content of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants under salinity and cadmium stress

The plants of Phaseolus vulgaris L. were grown in the presence of NaCl and/or CdCl₂ and were sprayed with 5 μM of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) at 15 days after transplanting (DAT) and were sampled at 30 DAT and at the end of experiment. The plants exposed to NaCl and/or CdCl₂ exhibited a significant decline in growth, the level of pigment parameters, green pod yield and pod protein. However, the follow up treatment with EBL detoxified the stress generated by NaCl and/or CdCl₂ and significantly improved the above parameters. The NaCl and/or CdCl₂ increased electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxidation and plant Cd²⁺ content, and decreased the membrane stability index (MSI) and relative water content. However, the EBL treatment in absence of the stress improved the MSI and relative water content and minimized plant Cd²⁺ content but could not influence electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation. The antioxidative enzymes and the level of proline exhibited a significant increase in response to EBL as well as to NaCl and/or CdCl₂ stress.     

Dry weight and carbohydrate distribution in different tree parts as affected by various fruit-loads of young persimmon and their effect on new growth in the next season

This study was conducted to determine the changes in the accumulation of dry weight (DW) and the distribution of carbohydrates in different parts of young persimmon (Diospyros kaki) as affected by various fruit-loads. The effects of such changes were monitored with regard to the abundance of new growth in the following year. On June 15, the fruit-load was adjusted to a leaf–fruit (L/F) ratio of 10, 20, and 30, and some trees were completely defruited. Between June 15 and November 11, the increase in DW was less in the defruited and more in the higher L/F-ratio trees. Among the various tree parts, the DW increased the most in the fruits during the same period. It was observed that the lower the L/F ratio, the more the DW in the fruits: the fruits accounted for 78.7% of the total DW in the 10-L/F, 57.6% in the 20-L/F, and 49.7% in the 30-L/F ratio trees. In contrast, as the L/F ratio increased, the DW distribution to the roots increased to 3% in the 10-L/F, 13% in the 20-L/F, and 26% in the 30-L/F ratio trees and 61% in the defruited trees. During this period, carbohydrates were distributed mostly to the fruits, but as the L/F ratio decreased, their distribution to permanent tree parts decreased. The distribution of soluble sugars and starch to the permanent parts was 1% and 14% in the 10-L/F, 3% and 48% in the 20-L/F, 9% and 57% in the 30-L/F ratio trees, and 71% and 93% in the defruited trees, respectively. Maintaining a lower L/F ratio resulted in a decrease in the shoot and fruit numbers in the following year: there were zero and four fruits in those trees with an L/F ratio of 10 and 20, respectively. The carbohydrates decreased in the roots of both the 30-L/F ratio trees and the defruited trees, whereas the defruited trees showed more new shoot growth in the following year. In the roots of the trees with the L/F ratio of 30, soluble sugars and starch decreased by 7.6 g and 1.8 g, respectively, during the spring growth, whereas, in the roots of the defruited trees soluble sugars and starch decreased by 33.3 g and 94.6 g, respectively.