Relationships between diameter and height of trees in natural tropical forest in Tanzania

The relationship between tree height (h) and tree diameter at breast height (dbh) is an important element describing forest stands. In addition, h often is a required variable in volume and biomass models. Measurements of h are, however, more time consuming compared to those of dbh, and visual obstructions, rounded crown forms, leaning trees and terrain slopes represent additional error sources for h measurements. The aim of this study was therefore to develop h–dbh relationship models for natural tropical forest in Tanzania. Both general forest type specific models and models for tree species groups were developed. A comprehensive data set with 2 623 trees from 410 different tree species collected from a total of 1 191 plots and 38 sites covering the four main forest types of miombo woodland, acacia savanna, montane forest and lowland forests was applied. Tree species groups were constructed by using a k-means clustering procedure based on the h–dbh allometry, and a number of different non-linear model forms were tested. When considering the complexity of natural tropical forests in general and in particular variations of h–dbh relationships due to high species diversity in such forests, the model fit and performance were considered to be appropriate. Results also indicate that tree species group models perform better than forest type models. Despite the fact that the residual errors level associated with the models were relatively high, the models are still considered to be applicable for large parts of Tanzanian forests with an appropriate level of reliability.     

Localizing general models with classification and regression trees

Abstract

Typically, in forest inventory the volume of tally trees is predicted with a volume model estimated at national level. Such a global model is not unbiased regionally if there is spatial variation in the tree form due to one or more unknown predictors. This regional bias could be reduced or removed if the models were localized to each region or subarea. The localization is easiest if the area can be divided into homogeneous areas with respect to stem form. This study tested whether the localization results depend on the way the division is made and on the size of the subareas. The study area was divided spatially into homogeneous subareas with residuals of the global model or with the local spatial index, G _i *, or both with classification and regression trees, the leaves of which formed the subareas. In addition, two other spatial divisions were created: an administrative forest centre and spatially equal-sized subarea divisions. The localized models were compared with the global model. The root mean squared errors (RMSEs) of localized models were smaller in median and in mean, but maximum values exceeded the overall global model RMSE. The localization reduced local RMSEs on average by 1–6%. The differences between the spatial divisions were small, although the aggregate standard errors and RMSEs were slightly smaller in regression trees. Only 50 ± 8% of the subareas were spatially homogeneous in regression tree divisions, which suggests that either the division criteria or the division method were inadequate.     

Estimating carbon stock in secondary forests: Decisions and uncertainties associated with allometric biomass models

Secondary forests are a major terrestrial carbon sink and reliable estimates of their carbon stocks are pivotal for understanding the global carbon balance and initiatives to mitigate CO₂ emissions through forest management and reforestation. A common method to quantify carbon stocks in forests is the use of allometric regression models to convert forest inventory data to estimates of aboveground biomass (AGB). The use of allometric models implies decisions on the selection of extant models or the development of a local model, the predictor variables included in the selected model, and the number of trees and species for destructive biomass measurements. We assess uncertainties associated with these decisions using data from 94 secondary forest plots in central Panama and 244 harvested trees belonging to 26 locally abundant species. AGB estimates from species-specific models were used to assess relative errors of estimates from multispecies models. To reduce uncertainty in the estimation of plot AGB, including wood specific gravity (WSG) in the model was more important than the number of trees used for model fitting. However, decreasing the number of trees increased uncertainty of landscape-level AGB estimates substantially, while including WSG had limited effects on the accuracy of the landscape-level estimates. Predictions of stand and landscape AGB varied strongly among models, making model choice an important source of uncertainty. Local models provided more accurate AGB estimates than foreign models, but high variability in carbon stocks across the landscape implies that developing local models is only justified when landscape sampling is sufficiently intensive.     

Urban forest assessment in Bangkok,Thailand

The objective of this study was to conduct an urban forest assessment for Bangkok and pilot the appropriateness of adapting the i-Tree Eco International software in Thailand. Urban forest structure, function, and value were estimated from 184 stratified random sample plots. A total 48 tree species were encountered and the three most common that contributed 34.1% of total tree population were Polyalthia longifolia Sonn. (15.7%), Mangifera indica L. (13.0%), and Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (5.4%). The majority of trees (approximately 70%) were <23 cm in diameter. An estimated 2.5 (0.4 SEM) million trees with a canopy cover of 8.6% (1.3 SEM) exist in the Bangkok study area. These trees store an approximate total of 309,700 (73,726 SEM) metric tons of carbon and sequester 16,271 (2965 SEM) metric tons of CO₂ annually. Additional research is needed to develop functional relationships for urban trees in Thailand to overcome a current limitation for using i-Tree Eco in Thailand to estimate structural and functional value of urban forests. Study results also provide land-use planners information on the current urban forest resource and the potential for future urban greening.     

Effect of intervention and type of forest management on quality and quantity characteristics of dead wood in managed and reserve forests: A case study

We compared the dead wood (DW) conditions of Cheshmeh-sar forest and Sardab forest with different management history,including reserve forest and harvested forest. The First forest took 100% inventory from all the available DW. Also dead trees were compared interms of species, shape, location and quality of fracture in both forests.Volumes of dead wood in Cheshmeh-sar and Sardab forests were 207.47and 142.74 m3, respectively. Due to this significant difference, impact onthe management level was determined. In Cheshmeh-sar forest, 42% ofdead trees were standing and 58% were fallen type while in Sardab forest 38.6% were standing and 61.4% fallen. But the difference was not statistically significant between them (p = 0.0587). In terms of quality, dead trees of hard, soft and hollow had the highest frequency, respectively.However, 71.5% of DW was seen as hard dead in Cheshmeh-sar forestwhile hard dead trees in Sardab forests were 54.2%. Soft quality degree ofdead trees which formed in Cheshmeh-sar and Sardab forest were calculated as 26.6% and 43.4% respectively. Also 30% of the dead trees of Sardab forest were eradicated while in Cheshmeh-sar this amount was reduced to 12%. Due to this significant difference ((Р=0/018), it is concluded that the type of management and human interference are affecting the quality of dead trees and makes us to think the human interferences could effect on the ecosystem of touched forests.     

Spatial distribution of regeneration in West-Carpathian uneven-aged silver fir forests

The objective of our study was to examine whether distribution of regeneration in uneven-aged fir (Abies alba Mill.) forests is related to the spatial pattern of trees. In 12 sample plots of size 0.45–1.00 ha (in total 8.65 ha, with stand basal areas ranging from 27.6 m² ha^–1 to 39.5 m² ha^–1), all live and dead trees above 5 cm in d_1.3 were mapped and their diameters measured. In eight plots, all live and dead fir saplings were mapped. In three plots, the number of live fir saplings and seedlings was registered on small systematically distributed circular plots. The values of an analytically developed index of stand influence were compared in patches occupied and unoccupied by live or dead fir regeneration. Contrary to preliminary assumptions, only in a few cases did saplings and trees 5–15 cm in d_1.3 appear more often in gaps and looser stand patches. Rather, in many plots, the opposite tendency was observed. The seedling density showed a weak but positive correlation with the index of influence. If the spatial pattern of regeneration reflects the spatially varying mortality of juvenile trees, then no evidence was found that stand competition was the most important factor inducing this mortality. On the contrary, on the basis of the results obtained, we can presume that the survival rate of juvenile firs was higher in patches with a relatively higher local basal area. Thus, it was hypothesised that, first, dispersion of regeneration in uneven-aged fir forests is controlled by easy-to-change edaphic factors such as humus form and acidity of the upper soil horizons, and second, that these soil features are linked with the spatial pattern of trees.     

Efficiency of inventory plot patterns in quantitative analysis of vegetation: a case study of tropical woodland and dense forest in Benin

The main issue in forest inventory is the reliability of data collected, which depends on the shape and size of inventoried plots. There is also a need for harmonisation of inventoried plot patterns in West Africa. This study focused on the impact of plot patterns on the quantitative analysis of two vegetation types of West Africa based on case studies from Benin. Twenty and fifteen plots of 1 ha each were demarcated in dense forest and woodland, respectively. Each 1 ha plot was divided into 100 quadrats of 100 m² each and diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees was recorded in each quadrat. The required time to measuring trees diameter in each 1 ha plot was also recorded to compute the mean inventory effort. From the 100 quadrats in each 1 ha plot, 14 subplots of different shapes and sizes were considered by grouping together adjacent quadrats. The basal area of each subplot was computed and the relationship between estimation bias of the basal area and the size of subplots was modeled using Smith's Law (Smith 1938). The mean absolute error of the shape parameter c of Weibull distribution was computed for each of the subplot shape, size and direction. The direction and shape of subplots did not influence significantly (P > 0.05) the precision of the quantitative analysis of vegetation. However, square subplots were suitable in practice. On the contrary, plot size was significantly (P < 0.05) and inversely correlated to estimation efficiency. The optimal plot size for quantitative analysis of vegetation was 1 800 and 2 000 m2 with an inventory effort of 0.51 and 0.85 man-days per subplot in woodland and dense forest, respectively. It is concluded that use of standard sample sizes will help to harmonise a forestry database and to carry out comparisons at regional level.     

Comparison of Forest Biomass Across a Human-Induced Disturbance Gradient in Nepal's Schima-CastanopsisForests

Abstract

This paper presents estimations of aboveground tree biomass (combined for boles and branches) in Nepal's Schima-Castanopsisdominated warm-temperate forests. The biomass estimations are presented for five forest stands purposively sampled in a larger study to represent different harvesting intensities. Two categories of biomass estimates are provided: (1) for living trees that are standing, and (2) for cut trees that have been removed. Biomass of standing trees were estimated by using diameter at breast height (dbh) and total height measurements as predictor variables in appropriate regression models. Biomass of cut trees were estimated in two steps: measurements of stump diameters and heights were used first to predict dbh and total heights of cut trees; these values were then regressed to obtain biomass estimates for the missing trees. Data were gathered from 2,361 live trees and 2,962 stumps in 170 sample plots across the five forest stands. Estimates of mean standing-alive biomass ranged from a minimum of 16 ton/ha in the severely disturbed forest to a maximum of 479 ton/ha in a relatively undisturbed (reference) forest. Estimates of mean cut biomass ranged from a minimum of 24 ton/ha in a second reference forest to a maximum of 183 ton/ha in the severely disturbed forest. The biomass estimates in the relatively-undisturbed, reference forests are well above the 95% upper confidence interval of the global mean. Similar findings of high productivity have been reported for temperate forests of the Central Himalaya in India and Eastern Himalaya in Sik-kim. The findings of this study in the Nepalese Central Himalaya support the conclusion that productivity potential is high in the temperate Himalayan forests. The study's findings and methodology should be useful for preliminary development of guidelines in the region to regulate forest biomass growth, yield, and harvest.     

兴安落叶松天然林林木直径与树高分布的分层特征

[目的]通过分析大兴安岭呼中林区兴安落叶松天然林胸径和树高的一元、二元分布特征,揭示脆弱地带森林群落的林木大小分布特征。[方法]在大兴安岭呼中林场设置3种不同类型兴安落叶松林固定样地,利用整体和分层的方法,对样地林分胸径和树高的变化规律以及两者之间的关系进行研究。[结果]表明:(1)草类-落叶松林直径分布为单峰分布,其他2块样地为双峰分布; 3块样地林木直径分布均呈左偏。杜鹃-落叶松林树高分布为多峰分布,其他2块地均为单峰分布; 3块样地林木树高分布均呈右偏。(2) 3块样地上、下层林木的直径分布均为单峰分布,上层木直径分布均呈左偏,下层木直径分布草类-落叶松林右偏,杜鹃-落叶松林左偏,杜香-落叶松林为近似正态。杜鹃-落叶松林的树高上、下层分布为双峰,其他2块样地均为单峰,3块样地上层木树高分布均左偏,而下层木树高分布均右偏。(3)草类-落叶松林和杜鹃-落叶松林小径阶林木株数占绝大多数。3块样地林分中树高与胸径的比值在小径阶林木中明显大于大径级林木。草类-落叶松林和杜鹃-落叶松林上层木中小径阶林木株数所占比例稍大,杜香-落叶松林和杜鹃-落叶松林下层木中大径阶林木株数比例稍大,但3块样地上层和下层木树高与胸径的比值在大小径阶林木中均无明显差异。[结论]高密度的杜鹃-落叶松林平均树高要高于低密度的杜香-落叶松林和草类-落叶松林平均树高,而平均胸径无明显差异。3块样地林分中树高与胸径的比值小径阶林木中明显大于大径级林木,但其差异在上层和下层林分中均表现不明显。     

Growth Model System for National Continuous Forest Inventory

A Growth Model System is developed for data updating and forecasting of the national continuous forest inventory. Its design is based on the inherent forest growth laws, and its parameters are estimated by modern regression methods. It is composed of an age-implicit tree model, a diameter-related survival rate model, a recruitment model based on age and number of plots, and an area model. It is suitable for forest resource information updating and forecasting for a large region, e.g., a province. Data of remeasured plots and trees are needed for development of the system. A study case of Jiangxi Province with detailed error analyses is provided. Translated from Forest Research, 2004, 17(4) (in Chinese)     

Can random components explain differences in the height–diameter relationship in mixed uneven-aged stands?

? Context

Tree height prediction is an important issue in forest management since tree heights are usually measured only in a sample of trees. Although numerous model approaches have been used for this purpose, no agreement on which one is more appropriate has been achieved.

? Aims

To analyse the random effects of basic and generalised height–diameter (h–d) models fitted to multi-species uneven-aged forest stands, and to establish their ability to explain differences between ecoregions, plots and species.

? Methods

Height and diameter measurements for 29,084 trees from 187 sample plots located in the state of Durango (Mexico) were used. Basic and generalised h–d models were fitted in a mixed-models framework. The variability between ecoregions, plots and species was considered in the random effects definition. Model calibration for different height sampling designs and sampling sizes was also analysed.

? Results

Random components performed well in explaining the differences in the h–d relationship between the different plots and species; however, no significant variance for the random effects was found for the different ecoregions. A calibrated basic h–d model produced similar results to a fixed-effects generalised h–d model when a sufficiently large number of trees was used in the calibration process.

? Conclusion

From a practical point of view, if no calibration is carried out, different models should be used for the different species, so that at least the variation among species is captured.     

Combining harvest sample data with inventory data to estimate forest biomass

Forest biomass databases which go beyond stem volume are needed for carbon balance calculations and also for forest monitoring, forest damage inventories and the solution of other related problems. In this article, it is shown how recursive multiple regression analysis can combine forest inventory data with biomass harvest data. The stand‐level conversion factor derived for Pinus sylvestris L. branch biomass for the “Severka”; Forest Farm shows a reasonable goodness of fit, with a coefficient of determination of R² = 0.87. Statistically significant coefficients were achieved by including stand density and the quadratic mean diameter in the regression. Equations developed for Switzerland, using Burger's Picea abies (L.) Karst. branch and needle conversion factors for individual trees, show R² = 0.87 and R ² = 0.91, achieved by taking h _dom.50, elevation, diameter at breast height and age into account.     

Estimates of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon: New allometric equations and adjustments to biomass from wood-volume inventories

Uncertainties in biomass estimates in Amazonian forests result in a broad range of possible magnitude for the emissions of carbon from deforestation and other land-use changes. This paper presents biomass equations developed from trees directly weighed in open forest on fertile soils in the southern Amazon (SA) and allometric equations for bole-volume estimates of trees in both dense and open forests. The equations were used to improve the commonly used biomass models based on large-scale wood-volume inventories carried out in Amazonian forest. The biomass estimates from the SA allometric equation indicate that equations developed in forests on infertile soils in central Amazonia (CA) result in overestimates if applied to trees in the open forests of SA. All aboveground components of 267 trees in open forests of SA were cut and weighed, and the proportion of the biomass stored in the crowns of trees in open forest was found to be higher than in dense forest. In the case of inventoried wood volume, corrections were applied for indentations and hollow trunks and it was determined that no adjustment is needed for the form factor used in the RadamBrasil volume formula. New values are suggested for use in models to convert wood volume to biomass estimates. A biomass map for Brazilian Amazonia was produced from 2702 plots inventoried by the RadamBrasil Project incorporating all corrections for wood density and wood volume and in factors used to add the bole volume of small trees and the crown biomass. Considering all adjustments, the biomass map indicates total biomass of 123.1 Gt (1 Gt = 1 billion tons) dry weight (aboveground + belowground) for originally forested areas in 1976 in the Brazilian Legal Amazon as a whole (102.3 Gt for aboveground only) at the time of the RadamBrasil inventories, which were carried out before intensive deforestation had occurred in the region. Excluded from this estimate are 529,000 km² of forest lacking sufficient RadamBrasil inventory data. After forest losses of 676,000 km² by 2006 – not counting 175,000 km² of this deforested area lacking RadamBrasil data – the estimated dry biomass stock was reduced to 105.4 and 87.6 Gt (aboveground + belowground and only above-ground). Thus, in 2006 the carbon storage in forested areas in Brazilian Amazonia as a whole will be around 51.1 Gt (assuming 1 Mg dry biomass = 0.485 Mg C). Biomass estimates by forest type (aggregated into 12 vegetation classes) are provided for each state in the Brazilian Legal Amazon.     

Effects of Different Management Practices on Stand Composition and Species Diversity in Subtropical Forests in Nepal: Implications of Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation

In this article, we compared the structure, composition, and diversity of trees, shrubs and saplings, seedlings and herbaceous species of community- and government-managed forests in the lowlands of eastern Nepal. Results suggest that among the trees, the community forest was dominated by a single species, Shorea robusta. However, Shorea robusta and Terminalia myriocarpa were codominant in the government forest. Tree density and basal area were higher in the government forest, but shrub/sapling density and basal area were higher in the community forest, suggesting a positive effect of community management on tree regeneration. Overstory species assemblages showed an obvious compositional difference between the forests, but understory species assemblages were less obvious. Plot-level tree and shrub/sapling species richness was higher in the government forest than the community forest. However, seedling-herbaceous species richness was higher in the community forest. The dominance of Shorea robusta trees in the community forest suggests that people involved in managing forests may be more interested in a limited number of economically valuable species while removing less important trees. Such preferential management practices may increase resource heterogeneity within a forest and maintain species diversity in the understory. Thus, community participation in forest management should be encouraged, with guided management techniques and exercises, to achieve maximum forest recovery, provide sustainable ecosystem services, and maintain forest diversity.     

Effect of human disturbance on the structure and regeneration of forests in the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico

Sample plots were established in the principal forest types in the the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico including those dominated by Pinus hartwegii, Abies religiosa, Quercus laurina and Alnus jorullensis. The vertical structure was defined by three strata in the coniferous forests and two strata in the broadleaved forests. Timber harvesting in Abies religiosa and Quercus laurina forests and fires generated by humans in Pinus hartwegii forests impeded the recruitment of saplings. Mature trees were also heavily impacted by logging in Pinus hartwegii forests. On the contrary, Alnus jorullensis forests were increasing due to the disturbance of Pinus and Quercus forests, as well abandoned crop lands within the park. A combination of logging, uncontrolled fire, and grazing appears to be compromising the recruitment of important tree species in this national park. These factors, together with human settlements, have also increased the proportion of early successional species. Changes in forest structure from human disturbance indicate a need to control these activities if conservation goals are not to be compromised.     

森林生物灾害承灾体脆弱性分析:一个概念框架

森林向人类提供多种重要价值, 依其可拥有性的不同, 相关受益人群分为特定受益人、不特定受益人和人类整体3类。基于以上分析并借鉴自然灾害科学相关原理, 提出了森林生物灾害承灾体的概念并将其划分为特定承灾体、区域承灾体和全球承灾体3类, 分析了森林生物灾害承灾体脆弱性的来源和特点, 构建了基于物理暴露性(V_e)、灾损敏感性(V_s)和应灾能力(V_d)等指标的森林生物灾害承灾体脆弱性评估体系, 探讨了森林生物灾害承灾体脆弱性管理的特点以及针对3类承灾体脆弱性管理的具体对策。     

Estimated Forest Ecological Water Requirements in the Jinghe Watershed—Theory and Case Study

The ecological water requirement of forests is defined as the water resources used to maintain and improve the natural balance of forest ecosystems, which can be expressed by evapotranspiration of trees during the growing season. The relationship of evapotranspiration and soil moisture of forestland with tree growth showed that, if the soil moisture was above the temporary wilting point or the point of growth retardation, the growth of trees can, respectively, be basically or normally sustained. Therefore, they can be taken as the minimum and the suitable ecological water requirements of the forest. These points can be estimated by introducing the soil factor (K _s) and tree species factor (K _t) to potential evapotranspiration with the Penman formula. With geographic information system (GIS), the ecological water requirement for forests in the Jinghe watershed, western China was estimated. The results revealed that the minimum and suitable ecological water requirements of the forests in the Jinghe watershed were approximately 204×10⁷ and 340×10⁷ m³, respectively. Translated from Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 2004, 18(6) (in Chinese)     

Plant-soil-water relations in forestry and silvopastoral systems in Oregon

Plant-soil-water relations of a silvopastoral system composed of a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) timber crop, subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) as a nitrogen-fixing forage, and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) as a forage crop were investigated near Corvallis, Oregon, during 1983–1986. Treatments included all possible combinations of two tree-planting patterns (trees planted 2.4 m apart in a grid, and groups of five trees spaced 7.6 m between clusters) and two grazing/understory management systems (agroforests were seeded to subclover and grazed by sheep; forests were unseeded and ungrazed).Mean twig xylem water potential (XWP) for Douglas-fir trees ranged from –0.3 to –1.5 MPa on forest plots and from –0.3 to –1.2 MPa on agroforest sites. Pre-dawn and sunset XWP were more negative for forest than for agroforest plots during dry summer periods. Midday XWP was similar for both agroforest and forest plots on all dates. Soil water content at 50–100 cm depth was greater under agroforest plots as compared to forest plots in 1984, but not in 1985 (unusually dry spring). Average foliage nitrogen content of tree needles was 1.54% vs. 1.43% for agroforests vs. forests, respectively.Our data are consistent with the hypotheses that: (1) grazing of understory vegetation may reduce water stress of trees during dry periods by reducing transpirational water use by the forage plants; and (2) nitrogen-fixing vegetation combined with grazing increases nitrogen uptake of associated trees. However, neither mean foliar N nor average XWP differences experienced by trees in agroforest versus forest plantations were sufficient to have an effect on tree growth. Our data demonstrate that it is possible to produce a second crop (i.e. forage grazed by sheep) in timber plantations without reducing the growth of the main tree crop.Submitted as Oregon Agrocultural Experiment Station Technical Paper No. 10109.     

Density structure and growth dynamics of a Larix principis-rupprechtii stand for water conservation in the Wutai Mountain Region of Shanxi Province, North China

To discover the site adaptability and density suitability of Larix principis-rupprechtii as a water conservation forest in Wutai Mountain, Shanxi Province, the growth process and diameter distribution characteristics of 10-year-old artificial L. principis-rupprechtii forests with density structures of 2600 trees/hm² and 3500 trees/hm² were studied using trunk analysis of a sample tree. The results showed that: 1) The tree height increment of the two kinds of forests were the same, and it was almost not affected by density. However, the growth process of the diameter and timber volume showed a great distinction. The growth status and density structure of the low density forest were superior to the high density forest. 2) The skewness (S _k) of diameter distribution had great distinction. The S _k (0.01) of the low density forest approached a normal distribution, which showed that the density structure was reasonable, while the S _k (0.45) of the high density forest was partial to a normal distribution, which showed that the density structure was on the high side. The kurtosis (K) of the two forests (one was −0.64, the other was −0.74) had little distinction and the density factor had limited function to forest polarization. 3) The increment of diameter at breast height, timber volume and trunk stock of the low density forest increased yearly without the effect of density. However, the increment of high density forests had declined from the sixth year, which was restricted by high density. 4) The reasonable density of the 10-year-old L. principis-rupprechtii artificial forest was about 2600 trees/hm², which is also the reasonable planting density if the utilization of double cutting is not considered. __________ Translated from Science of Soil and Water Conservation, 2007, 5(1): 1–6 [译自: 中国水土保持科学]     

我国西北主要天然林经营模式设计

[目的]研制森林经营模式属于森林经营研究的核心内容.如何将现有的、已被实践检验而富有成效的经营方法与技术进行组装配套,形成森林经营模式是目前天然林经营研究中亟待解决的科学问题.[方法]将天然林经营的目标设定为保育健康、稳定、优质、高效的森林,根据现有林中大径木的多少确定经营类型,基于众多的试验结果或研究成果进行经营措施安排,期望在百年左右的时段内,通过有序调整小树拥挤度、大树均匀性、林分成层性和幼树开敞度,并进行地力维护以及结构化森林经营等技术措施,使现有天然林演变为恒续林.[结果]设计出了3大类20种经营模式,即9种针叶林(松林、云杉林)复层异龄林模式、4种栎类阔叶林模式以及7种松栎(阔)混交林模式.所设计出的天然林经营模式都包含了林分整体经营和单木经营,而在单木经营中均采用了结构化森林经营技术.[结论]研究设计出的20个经营模式为我国西北地区天然林保育提供了既先进又实用的技术指南,也对我国其它地区天然林经营有非常重要的借鉴作用.