Colonization of Phellinus weirii-infested stumps by Trichoderma viride 1. Effect of isolate and inoculum base

Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii(Mirb.) Franco] stumps infested with Phellinus weirii (Murr.) Gilb. were inoculated with the antagonist Trichoderma viride Pers.: Fr. Colonization of the stumps by Trichoderma spp. after one year was significantly higher in the upper 10-cm than in the middle or lower 10-cm section even though inoculum was present at all levels. A pellet inoculum made from fermented barley grains and spores proved to be superior inoculum to colonized dowels, but no difference was found among the three isolates of T. viride tested. Decayed wood was more readily colonized than stained wood and was much more readily colonized than sound wood.     

Biological control of Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. (Fomes annosus) in Finland

Fresh stumps of Norway spruce (Picea abies) were inoculated with Peniophora gigantea (Fr.) Massee, Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr., Gliocladium deliquescens Sopp, Trichoderma viride Pers. ex Fr. ex S. F. Gray aggr. and Verticicladiella procera Kendrick in order to study their effect on infection by Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. The organisms colonizing spruce stumps under natural conditions were identified by collecting samples in the field. In addition, the effect of season of the year, air temperature, precipitation and relative air temperature on fungal colonization of the stumps was investigated.     

Evaluation of the biological control agent Rotstop in controlling the infection of spruce and pine stumps by Heterobasidion in Latvia

The biological control agent Rotstop^® composed of a suspension of spores of Phlebiopsis gigantea (Fr.) Jül. is widely used for protecting conifer stumps from aerial infection by Heterobasidion species. The efficacy of Rotstop application on Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stumps was determined in several locations and at different seasons in Latvia. Mean efficacy in controlling natural infection by Heterobasidion spp. in spruce stumps was 64%, calculated on the basis of number of infected stumps, and 89%, calculated on the basis of area of infected wood on sample discs cut from the stumps. Corresponding proportions for pine were 82% and 95%. The results show that Rotstop can be successfully used for stump treatment in Latvia, although improved efficacy is desirable, particularly in spruce. A Latvian isolate of P. gigantea, selected from numerous isolates in preliminary tests, was included in one experiment and was shown to be as effective as the Rotstop isolate. In untreated spruce stumps Heterobasidion spp. and P. gigantea were present in the same stump three times more frequently than in untreated pine stumps. Heterobasidion spp. infection in untreated spruce stumps was low when P. gigantea covered more than 10% of stump dissection.     

Dry weight loss of wood after the inoculation of Scots pine stumps with Phlebiopsis gigantea

Artificial inoculation of stumps with Phlebiopsis gigantea (preparation‘PgIBL’) against Heterobasidion annosum in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands on former agricultural lands in Poland is being performed throughout the year. The practical efficiency of the biological control appears to be influenced by the moisture content in stumps and roots. In experiment 1, dry weight loss of wood 3 months and 6 months after P. gigantea inoculation in laboratory was investigated in the stumps after salvage cutting (felling of dead and dying trees) and after thinning (routine cutting of trees) and compared with the decay of the artificially inoculated stumps under field conditions. It was found that 6 months after inoculation the dry weight loss of the samples was about 3%, 17% and 22%, respectively. In experiment 2, the decay of wood from horizontal roots collected after thinning, inoculated with P. gigantea in laboratory, was evaluated. Three months after the inoculation, the loss of dry weight wood was about 22–52%, depending on initial moisture of the roots.     

Treatment of wounds on Acer rubrum with Trichoderma viride1

Wounds on 90 Acer rubrum trees were inoculated with Trichoderma viride in July and August 1973 to determine the effect of the fungus on the development of decay. The trees were 45 years old and 15 cm diam at 1.4 m aboveground. Each tree had 12 wounds, 1.4 cm in diam and 5 cm deep. After a year 28 trees were harvested and isolations were made from the discolored, and decayed wood associated with each wound. Trichoderma viride was reisolated from all wounds that were inoculated with it. Hymenomycetes were isolated frequently from decayed wood associated with wounds not inoculated with T. viride. No Hymenomycetes were isolated from wounds inoculated with T. viride.     

Stocks and decay dynamics of above- and belowground coarse woody debris in managed Sitka spruce forests in Ireland

Coarse woody debris (CWD) has become recognised as an important component of the carbon (C) pool in forest ecosystems. In Ireland, managed Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong) Carr.) forests account for 52.3% of the total forest estate. To determine the stock and decay dynamics of above and belowground CWD, field surveys using fixed area sample plots, were conducted in six even-aged Sitka spruce stands, representing the young, intermediate and mature stages of a typical commercial rotation. The volume, mass, density loss and C:N ratio of all CWD types (logs, stumps, and coarse roots) were determined using a five-decay class (DC) system. The decay rates and half life of CWD was also determined. To estimate CWD coarse root mass; roots associated with stumps classified in different decay classes were excavated. The coarse roots were categorised into small (2-10 mm), medium (10-50 mm) and large (>50 mm) diameter classes.CWD C-mass ranged from 6.98 to 18.62 Mg ha⁻¹ and was highest in an intermediate forest (D35), while the aboveground volume varied from 6.31 to 42.27 m³ ha⁻¹. Coarse roots accounted for 21% to 85% of the total CWD C-pool in the surveyed stands. The total CWD C-mass was poorly correlated with the number of thinning events (R² = 0.29), when data from D35 was excluded. The density loss was significant in logs (45%), stumps (58%), and small- (38%), medium- (50%) and large roots (38%) as decay progress from DC 0 to 4. There was a 46%, 41%, 51%, 72% and 57% decline in C:N ratio of logs, stumps, small-, medium- and large roots, respectively, as decay progressed from DC 0 to 4. The density decay rates were 0.059, 0.048 and 0.036 kg m⁻³ year⁻¹ for logs, stumps and coarse roots, respectively. The size classification of roots did not significantly affect their decay rate. The half life (50% decomposition) of CWD was estimated has 12-, 14- and 19 years for logs, stumps and roots of Sitka spruce. Regression curves showed a strong correlation between the density and C:N ratio (R² = 0.69, 0.74 and 0.93 for logs, stumps and coarse roots, respectively). The long term storage of C and its slow rate of decomposition make CWD a vital structural and functional component of the CWD C-pool and a major controller of forest ecosystem C-retention.     

Decomposition of Pinus radiata coarse woody debris in New Zealand

The decomposition of Pinus radiata (D. Don) stems, coarse woody roots and stumps was studied in Tarawera forest, Bay of Plenty region, North Island, New Zealand. The study examined the residues from two thinning events with 6 and 11 years of decay. Changes in the mass of stems, and density of roots and stumps were used to estimate the decay rate constants using a single exponential model. The decay rate of stems was not significantly related to DBH and averaged 0.1374 year⁻¹ (22 years for 95% mass loss). The decay rate of coarse woody roots was not significantly different to stem decay and averaged 0.1571 year⁻¹ (19 years for 95% mass loss). A large range in stump decay rates was measured and a significantly lower decay constant was observed for stumps (0.1101 year⁻¹, 27 years for 95% mass loss), possibly due to the stumps being kept alive after felling through root grafting and a resistance to decay due to the presence of resin. The concentration of C remaining in stems and stumps increased with mass loss from 52% to 55% C after 11 years of decay. The C concentration in coarse woody roots initially increased but then declined near to the original level of 50% after 11 years of decay. Nitrogen concentrations increased substantially in all components with decay.     

Über die Lebensdauer der Stammfäuleerreger Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. und Sparassis crispa (Wulf. in Jacq.) ex Fr. in Kiefernstubben1

The longevity of the decay fungi, Polyporus gchweinitzii Fr. and Sparassis crispa (Wulf. in Jacq.) ex Fr. in stumps of Scots pine. In the Federal Republic of Germany Douglas fir is often planted on sites which formerly carricd Scots pine. The longevity of Polyporus schweinitzii and Sparassis crispa, parasites of both tree species, in the stumps of the Scots pine was investigated. Six years after felling, both P. schweinitzii and S. crispa were isolated from 11% of the stumps. Sixteen years after felling, the figures were respectively, 10% and 8%.     

松材线虫入侵的黑松内栖真菌区系初步研究

松材线虫（Bursaphelenchus xylophilus（Steiner ＆ Buhrer）Nickle）是毁灭性森林病害——松材线虫病的病原物,主要危害针叶树种,尤其是松属（Pinus spp．）树种。黑松（Pinus thunbergii Pad．）原产日本及朝鲜半岛东部沿海地区,因其耐海雾、抗海风、可在海滩上生长等特性,在我国辽宁、山东、河北、江苏、安徽、浙江、福建、湖北、广东等省大量栽植,总面积约159300hm^2。研究证明,黑松是松材线虫病的高度感病树种,一旦松材线虫入侵,后果是毁灭性的,将给森林造成严重的、不可挽回的损失。     

A lack of large-diameter logs and snags characterises dead wood patterns in Irish forests

Dead wood is an important component of forest ecosystems and volumes vary depending on forest age, management intensity and productivity. This is the first large-scale study to quantify dead wood in Irish forests and to compare them to forests in other locations. We measured the volume and size distribution of logs, the density and size distribution of snags and the volume of dead wood contained in stumps in Oak (Quercus spp.) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) forests and in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) plantations throughout Ireland. We also assigned each log, snag and stump to one of three decay classes (intact, part-rotted and well-rotted). We found no significant difference in log volume between any of the forest types. The majority (>90%) of logs were less than 20 cm in diameter, and large logs (>40 cm diameter) were scarce. We found a relatively high density of snags in all forest types but, as in the case of logs, over 90% of snags were <20 cm DBH and large snags (>40 cm DBH) were rare. The volume of dead wood contained in stumps was significantly higher in plantations than in Oak or Ash forests as a result of thinning and harvesting. Most logs and snags were moderately decayed but, in plantations, most stumps were intact. Log volume and the size of logs and snags were considerably lower than in old-growth forests in other regions. These patterns may reflect historical use of Irish forests for coppice and timber production. Management for biodiversity should aim to accelerate dead wood accumulation to increase the frequency of large-diameter logs and snags. Although management seeking to replicate the dead wood volumes of old-growth forests is ideal, it may be unrealistic in the short term.     

The regeneration characteristics of Picea jezoensis and Abies sachalinensis on cut stumps in the sub-boreal forests of Hokkaido Tokyo University Forest

The regeneration characteristics of Picea jezoensis Carr. and Abies sachalinensis Masters on cut stumps in natural forest under selection cutting and natural regeneration were studied in a sub-boreal forest of the Hokkaido Tokyo University Forest. The following points were investigated: (1) what decay class of cut stumps are suitable for regeneration of the two conifer species; (2) what part, either a root collar or a cut surface, of a cut stump is suitable for regeneration; and (3) what percentages of cut stumps support conifer seedlings. The percentages of cut stumps that supported conifer seedlings increased as the decay class advanced, but slightly decreased in the latest stage of decay class, V. Both P. jezoensis and A. sachalinensis seedling densities per cut stump and per square meter of cut stumps increased as the decay class advanced. Some root collars in decay class IV supported A. sachalinensis seedlings, but few supported P. jezoensis. Densities of P. jezoensis per cut surface and per square meter of cut surface in decay class IV were higher than those of A. sachalinensis. On the other hand, densities of A. sachalinensis per root collar and per square meter of root collar in decay class IV were higher than those of P. jezoensis. Cut stumps in advanced decay classes are more suitable for regeneration of P. jezoensis and A. sachalinensis than those in early decay classes. Whereas a cut surface is more suitable for regeneration of P. jezoensis, a root collar is more suitable for regeneration of A. sachalinensis. Cut stumps are not sufficient to ensure enough conifer regeneration because not all conifer cut stumps in advanced decay classes support conifer seedlings.     

Modelling root rot incidence in Sweden using tree,site and stand variables

Decay and root rot caused by Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. s. lato is the most serious disease of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.]. Mathematical models of disease development have recently been developed for forestry planning purposes. Functions for predicting the probability of decay were developed from two data sets, one comprising trees and another comprising stumps. From the years 1983–2001, 45,587 Norway spruce trees from the Swedish National Forest Inventory (NFI) were analysed for decay incidence at 1.3 m height and correlation with environmental conditions. The decay frequency increased in all studied regions from the first to the second half of the period for trees with comparable tree and environmental attributes. In a stepwise logistic regression, sets of functions were developed showing significance regarding stand age, site index class, temperature sum, height above sea level, diameter at 1.3 m, soil moisture and texture, proportion of spruce and eastern coordinates. The functions were calibrated and validated with a data set from the Swedish NFI from the years 1993–2002 comprising 7,893 stumps. The calibration of decay incidence at breast height to stump height doubled the decay incidence (R ²=0.85). The developed functions could be used to establish initial conditions for dynamic modelling of disease and in strategic planning.     

In vitro interactions between bacteria isolated from Sitka spruce stumps and Heterobasidion annosum

Culture medium composition affected antagonism by bacterial isolates from Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) stumps against Heterobasidion annosum. Fifty percent of bacterial isolates inhibited H. annosum growth on sporulation agar or yeast–dextrose–peptone agar; only 10% of isolates caused inhibition on both media. Proportions of isolates inhibiting H. annosum varied with stump age; fewer isolates from 4‐ or 6‐year‐old stumps exhibited antagonism than isolates from older or younger stumps. Fifteen isolates showing antagonism on sporulation agar were tested against H. annosum in spruce wood cubes. None of the bacterial isolates alone caused a significant weight reduction in inoculated cubes. Relative inoculation times of bacterial isolates and H. annosum had an effect on weight loss in interactions; simultaneous inoculation with isolates and H. annosum inhibited weight loss caused by H. annosum compared with bacteria‐free controls. Inoculation with bacterial isolates 10 days before H. annosum had no effect on the decay rate. In contrast, inoculation with H. annosum 10 days before bacteria increased weight loss of cubes by 200% relative to cultures lacking bacteria. The effect of a mixed bacterial inoculum on weight change in 0.2‐mm spruce wood slips co‐inoculated with H. annosum, Resinicium bicolor, Hypholoma fasciculare, Stereum sanguinolentum or Melanotus proteus differed between different fungi.     

Presence of Heterobasidion infections in Norway spruce stumps 6 years after treatment with Phlebiopsis gigantea

Natural colonization by the root and butt rot causing fungi Heterobasidion spp. on Norway spruce (Picea abies) stumps following thinning and treatment with the biological control agent Phlebiopsis gigantea was investigated on three sites in southern Sweden 6 years after treatment. The fully treated stumps and control stumps were excavated and sampled to compare the survival of Heterobasidion spp. in the long term. Six years post‐treatment, 47 and 11% of untreated and treated stumps, respectively, had Heterobasidion infection. There was no difference in the relative infected area in discs collected from the butt and the roots for the different treatments. Control efficacy was 83% for treated stumps. After 6 years, there were no apparent differences between the remaining infections in treated compared with those in untreated stumps regarding the number of colonies, their size or relative infection area. Although infections, 3 months after treatment with P. gigantea, were significantly fewer and smaller than in untreated stumps, Heterobasidion inoculum can survive for at least 6 years in the stump and, when it does, constitute a risk for neighbouring trees.     

Rhizomorph production and stump colonization by co‐occurring Armillaria cepistipes and Armillaria ostoyae: an experimental study

In managed spruce forests, Armillaria cepistipes and A. ostoyae are efficient stump colonizers and may compete for these resources when they co‐occur at the same site. The aim of this experiment was to quantify the mutual competitive ability of the two Armillaria species in producing rhizomorphs and in colonizing Norway spruce (Picea abies) stumps. Five isolates of A. cepistipes and two isolates of A. ostoyae were simultaneously inoculated pair‐wise into pots containing a 4‐year‐old spruce seedling. For comparison, each isolate was also inoculated alone. One year after inoculation, stumps were created by cutting down the seedlings. Six months after creation of the stumps, rhizomorph production and stump colonization were assessed. Armillaria spp. were identified from 347 rhizomorphs and 48 colonized stumps. Armillaria cepistipes dominated both as rhizomorphs in the soil and on the stumps. Nevertheless, A. ostoyae was relatively more frequent on the stumps than in the soil and A. cepistipes was relatively more frequent in the soil than on the stumps. In both species, the ability to colonize the stumps in simultaneous inoculations was significantly reduced compared with single inoculations. In respect to rhizomorph production, simultaneous co‐inoculations had a slightly stimulatory effect on A. cepistipes and no significant effect on A. ostoyae. Our study suggests a rather neutralistic co‐existence of A. cepistipes and A. ostoyae as rhizomorphs in the soil. Concerning the ability to colonize stumps, the two species experience a mutual negative effect from the interaction, probably because of interspecific competition.     

Attacks by bark- and wood-boring Coleoptera on mechanically created high stumps of Norway spruce in the two years following cutting

Attacks of bark- and wood-boring beetles on mechanically created high stumps of Norway spruce, Picea abies L. (Karst.), were studied in the provinces of Dalarna (Grangärde area) and Uppland (Fagerön) in central Sweden. The experiment included a total of 362 stumps in the Grangärde area as well as 48 stumps and 18 logs at Fagerön. Most inspections were conducted in the first and second autumns following the cuttings made to create the stumps. All stumps were attacked by at least one species during the two-year period, and for almost all of them (95%) the initial attacks occurred in the first summer. The most frequently encountered species on the stumps were the scolytids Ips typographus (L.), Pityogenes chalcographus (L.), Hylurgops palliatus (Gyll.), Orthotomicus spp., Trypodendron lineatum (Oliv.), Dryocoetes sp. and Polygraphus poligraphus (L.), and the cerambycids Tetropium spp. and Monochamus sutor (L.). Both the time of cutting and stump diameter influenced beetle colonisation. I. typographus was not found in autumn-cut stumps, while Orthotomicus spp. was found more frequently in autumn-cut stumps than in spring-cut stumps. There was a positive relationship between I. typographus occupancy and stump diameter, while negative relationships were found between stump diameter and H. palliatus and T. lineatum occupancy. Most stumps (ca. 80%) were attacked by more than one bark- and wood-boring species in the first summer. The proportion of stumps attacked was significantly higher than the proportion of logs attacked for P. poligraphus, T. lineatum and Tetropium spp., whereas the opposite was true for I. typographus. The percentage of bark area utilised by I. typographus was significantly higher in logs than in stumps.     

The efficacy of selected biological and chemical control agents against Heterobasidion abietinum on Abies cilicica

The efficacy of 30% aqueous urea solution, borax powder and spore suspensions of Phlebiopsis gigantea and Trichoderma harzianum against establishment of artificially inoculated Heterobasidion abietinum on Abies cilicica was tested both in the field and in a simulated stump treatment experiment carried out in a growth chamber. In the field, in each of the four selected stands 20 fresh stumps per control agent were treated and 20 stumps were left as untreated controls. In two of the stands, the treatments were applied in June and in the two others in November. Stumps were sampled twice, at 6‐ and 12‐months after treatment. In the growth chamber, 10 log pieces per treatment and control were used, and sampling performed after 6‐week incubation. Results of the urea and borax treatments were consistent between the experiments; the mean efficacies were 98.8 and 99.4% in the growth chamber, and 80.2–91.3 and 89.4–90.1% in the two samplings of the field experiment, respectively. Despite the high efficacies of the P. gigantea (85.9%) and T. harzianum (97.5%) treatments in the growth chamber, efficacies of these biological control agents in the field were 47.1–49.2 and 61.3–65.5%, respectively.     

Susceptibility of Sitka spruce and grand fir trees to decay by Heterobasidion annosum

The susceptibility of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and grand fir (Abies grandis) to decay by Heterobasidion annosum was compared on a site with a previous history of serious disease. The incidence of decay 15–16 years after planting was 1.5% in grand fir, compared with 34.8% in Sitka spruce. These results are broadly similar to those reported from other trials. More information is required for older trees in Britain but the evidence so far available suggests that grand fir is more resistant to H. annosum than Sitka spruce. Planting grand fir on severely infested sites may therefore significantly reduce the serious losses that could be expected with Sitka spruce. In 14 out of 271 decayed Sitka spruce H. annosum was absent from the middle or base of the decay column but present at the top. Approximately 3% of infected spruce showed features suggesting some degree of resistance. Resin bleeding was observed at the base of 23.2% of the infected spruce, and the mean height of the decay column in these trees was significantly greater (0.96 m) than in those without this feature (0.66 m). The inoculum for infection was provided by stumps of the previous crop, and the genets of H. annosum that were present in some infected trees were also identified in stumps. The majority of infected trees contained only a single genet but three trees contained two genets. In this young crop individual genets were smaller than those found elsewhere; the largest extended to include six trees.     

The effect of Phlebiopsis gigantea and urea stump treatment against spore infection of Heterobasidion spp. on hybrid larch (Larix × eurolepis) in southern Sweden

The efficacy of stump treatment with 40% urea solution and spore suspension of Phlebiopsis gigantea against primary infection by Heterobasidion spp. on hybrid larch (Larix × eurolepis) was tested in two field studies in southern Sweden. In the first study, stumps treated with urea or P. gigantea were sampled by cutting a cross‐section disc after 3 months following exposure to natural conditions, and in the second study, stumps treated with only P. gigantea were sampled after 2 months. Spore traps made from hybrid larch, Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) were used to estimate the abundance of ambient spores of Heterobasidion spp. in the second study. Urea significantly reduced infection frequency of Heterobasidion spp. compared to the control. Phlebiopsis gigantea was less effective at reducing infection frequency in the first study than in the second study. Infections were caused by both H. parviporum and H. annosum sensu stricto. The amount of H. annosum infection in proportion to Heterobasidion spp. was significantly lower on the stumps treated with P. gigantea compared to the control; however, the proportion of H. parviporum on the treated stumps was not higher than the control in the first study. Spore traps made of Scots pine had a significantly higher frequency of infection than Norway spruce and hybrid larch. Only the spore traps made of hybrid larch showed significant correlation with the control stumps in terms of relative infected area. Conclusively, it seems prudent to protect hybrid larch stumps from primary infection by Heterobasidion spp., and both urea and P. gigantea can be recommended as stump treatment agents on hybrid larch, even if urea seemed to present more stable results.     

Fungi occurring in the roots and basal parts of one‐ and two‐year‐old spruce and pine stumps

The occurrence of fungi in the underground parts of 1‐ and 2‐year‐old conifer stumps (Pimis sylveslris and Picea abies) was studied in two clear‐felled areas of eastern Uppland in Sweden, and most fungal isolates were identified to species.

Decay fungi (Basidiomycetes) were more frequent in spruce stumps than in pine stumps, and their incidence was highest in 2‐year‐old stumps. The occurrence of blue‐stain fungi and hyaline mycelia did not differ significantly between stumps of different species or age. Within stumps, decay fungi were most frequent in large roots close to the cut surface, whereas blue‐stain fungi and hyaline mycelia were most abundant in small roots. The occurrence of yeasts, bacteria and fast‐growing moulds was also recorded.