Nocardial infections of animals in New Zealand, 1976–78

Nocardiaspecies that are common in the soil environment can cause disease in man and animals. These infections are usually considered rare, and there have been only four cases of animal disease previously reported in the New Zealand literature. A limited survey, with the co-operation of staff from animal health laboratories, revealed a further 34 cases of Nocardia infection between 1976–78, and this figure is likely to be conservative. Twenty-six cases were mastitic infections and one was an isolate from a bovine placenta; the majority of infected animals were reported from the South Auckland and Waikato regions. The remaining cases were fatal infections of cats, dogs and a seal. Diagnostic tests on the causative organisms from 27 cases for which cultures were available all proved to be N. asteroides strains. Improved epidemiological data may help relate occurrence of disease in animals to the distribution of Nocardia in nature, but this is dependent on recognition of the organism by the specialists involved in the field and laboratory. Without epidemiological data, it will not be possible to evaluate the effects on animals of increasing the multiplication of Nocardia, for example by adding sewage sludge to soil.     

New Zealand national mastitis survey: 1965–6

Extract

A national survey was undertaken to estimate the prevalence and distribution of bovine mastitis. It was planned as a model which could be repeated at intervals.     

Mycobacteria isolated from deer in New Zealand from 1970–1983

Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from 504 deer from 1970 to 1983. It was first isolated from feral red deer (Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand in 1970, and from farmed deer in 1978. Cervine tuberculosis has emerged as a significant problem in farmed deer and in 1983 M. bovis was found on 40 different farms. Thirty-five isolates of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare have been cultured from deer but were associated with clinical disease in only four cases. Mycobacterium nonchromogenicum, Mycobacterium diernhoferi, Mycobacterium gastri, Mycobacterium chelonei, Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium vaccae were isolated from deer but were not considered to be pathogenic.     

Effect of preemptive topical application of lidocaine or prilocaine–lidocaine on successful catheterization of ear veins in New Zealand White rabbits

ObjectiveTo compare 5% lidocaine ointment applied for 10 minutes before intravenous (IV) catheterization to a eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (2.5% lidocaine and 2.5% prilocaine; EMLA) cream applied for 10 or 60 minutes prior and a water-based placebo for 60 minutes for successful marginal ear IV catheterization in rabbits.Study designRandomized, blinded, complete crossover, controlled trial.AnimalsA total of 10 intact male, New Zealand White rabbits aged 4 months.MethodsAfter application of one of the treatments on the marginal ear vein, an operator unaware of the treatment attempted IV catheter placement. Successful IV catheterization was considered as a catheter inserted at the first attempt, safely secured, with appropriate patency. Generalized linear mixed models were developed to identify relevant predictors of successful catheter placement.ResultsEars that had EMLA cream applied 60 minutes before the catheterization attempt had more than 10 times the odds of successful catheter placement [odds ratio (OR)=10.75; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.92–60.16; p < 0.008] compared with placebo. Both the application of EMLA cream or lidocaine ointment 10 minutes before the catheterization attempt resulted in approximately three times the odds of successful catheter placement compared with placebo, but were not statistically significant.Conclusions and clinical relevanceApplication of EMLA cream on the marginal ear vein 60 minutes before catheterization increases the chance of successful IV catheter placement in conscious rabbits.     

New Zealand national mastitis survey: 1965–6 1. Preliminary studies

An enzyme-linked immunospecific assay (ELISA) for the serodiagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in sheep is described and compared with the cold complement fixation (CF) test. ELISA was performed in microtiter plates, using horse-radish peroxidase conjugated to anti-normal sheep serum globulins, and hydrogen peroxide plus o-phenylenediamine as substrate. A heated, cell-free B. ovis extract was used as antigen in both tests.

ELISA was easier to perform, distinguished better between positive and negative sera, and did not need heat-inactivated sera.     

Effects of intramuscular and intranasal administration of midazolam–dexmedetomidine on sedation and some cardiopulmonary variables in New Zealand White rabbits

ObjectiveTo compare the sedative and cardiopulmonary effects of intranasal (IN) and intramuscular (IM) administration of dexmedetomidine and midazolam combination in New Zealand White rabbits.Study designA randomized, crossover experimental study.AnimalsA total of eight healthy New Zealand White rabbits, aged 6–12 months, weighing 3.1 ± 0.3 kg (mean ± standard deviation).MethodsThe animals were randomly assigned to administration of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg kg^–1) with midazolam (2 mg kg^–1) by either IN or IM route separated by 2 weeks. The electrocardiogram, pulse rate (PR), peripheral haemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO₂), mean noninvasive arterial pressure (MAP), respiratory frequency (f_R) and rectal temperature were measured before drug administration (baseline), T₀ (onset of sedation) and at 5 minute intervals until recovery. The onset of sedation, duration of sedation and sedation score (SS) were also recorded.ResultsThe PR was significantly lower in treatment IM than in treatment IN over time (p = 0.027). MAP < 60 mmHg developed in two and four rabbits in treatments IN and IM, respectively. SpO₂ progressively decreased over time in both treatments. f_R was lower than baseline at several time points in both treatments. Onset of sedation was shorter in treatment IN (90 ± 21 seconds) than in treatment IM (300 ± 68 seconds) (p = 0.036). Duration of sedation was longer in treatment IM (55.2 ± 8.7 minutes) than in treatment IN (39.6 ± 2.1 minutes) (p = 0.047). No significant difference in SS was observed between treatments (p > 0.05).Conclusions and clinical relevanceCombination of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg kg^–1) and midazolam (2 mg kg^–1) decreased f_R, PR and SpO₂ regardless of the administration route in New Zealand White rabbits. A more rapid action and shorter duration of sedation were observed after treatment IN than after treatment IM administration.     

Hypoventilation following oxygen administration associated with alfaxalone–dexmedetomidine–midazolam anesthesia in New Zealand White rabbits

ObjectiveTo investigate the relationship between oxygen administration and ventilation in rabbits administered intramuscular alfaxalone–dexmedetomidine–midazolam.Study designProspective, randomized, blinded study.AnimalsA total of 25 New Zealand White rabbits, weighing 3.1–5.9 kg and aged 1 year.MethodsRabbits were anesthetized with intramuscular alfaxalone (4 mg kg^–1), dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg kg^–1) and midazolam (0.2 mg kg^–1) and randomized to wait 5 (n = 8) or 10 (n = 8) minutes between drug injection and oxygen (100%) administration (facemask, 1 L minute^–1). A control group (n = 9) was administered medical air 10 minutes after drug injection. Immediately before (PRE_oxy/air5/10) and 2 minutes after oxygen or medical air (POST_oxy/air5/10), respiratory rate (f_R), pH, PaCO₂, PaO₂, bicarbonate and base excess were recorded by an investigator blinded to treatment allocation. Data [median (range)] were analyzed with Wilcoxon, Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis tests and p < 0.05 considered significant.ResultsHypoxemia (PaO₂ < 88 mmHg, 11.7 kPa) was observed at all PRE times: PRE_oxy5 [71 (61–81) mmHg, 9.5 (8.1–10.8) kPa], PRE_oxy10 [58 (36–80) mmHg, 7.7 (4.8–10.7) kPa] and PRE_air10 [48 (32–64) mmHg, 6.4 (4.3–8.5) kPa]. Hypoxemia persisted when breathing air: POST_air10 [49 (33–66) mmHg, 6.5 (4.4–8.8) kPa]. Oxygen administration corrected hypoxemia but was associated with decreased f_R (>70%; p = 0.016, both groups) and hypercapnia (p = 0.016, both groups). Two rabbits (one per oxygen treatment group) were apneic (no thoracic movements for 2.0–2.5 minutes) following oxygen administration. f_R was unchanged when breathing air (p = 0.5). PaCO₂ was higher when breathing oxygen than air (p < 0.001).Conclusions and clinical relevanceEarly oxygen administration resolved anesthesia-induced hypoxemia; however, f_R decreased and PaCO₂ increased indicating that hypoxemic respiratory drive is an important contributor to ventilation using the studied drug combination.     

Effect of dietary supplementation of β-1,3–1,6-glucan on reproductive performance and immunity of New Zealand White does and their pups

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary β-1,3–1,6-glucan supplementation on the reproductive performance and immunity of New Zealand White breeding does and their pups. Thirty pregnant multiparous New Zealand White does were randomly assigned to three dietary treatments; 0 (control), 0.064% β-1,3–1,6-glucan or 0.128% β-1,3–1,6-glucan dietary supplementation from day 14 of gestation to day 28 of lactation. The 0.128% dietary β-1,3–1,6-glucan supplementation caused reduced (P < 0.05) feed intake from day 14 to day 28 of gestation. The swelling response 24 and 48 h after injection of phytohemoagglutinin-P showed that does fed with 0.064% dietary β-1,3–1,6-glucan had lower (P < 0.05) swelling response than the control group. Serum IgG and IgM concentrations of does were significantly higher during pregnancy than during lactation. Compared to the controls, does fed with 0.128% β-1,3–1,6-glucan had reduced serum IgM concentrations at day 21 of gestation and day 3 of lactation. They had significantly reduced serum IgG at day 28 of gestation but increased serum IgG at day 3 of lactation. Serum IgM and IgG concentrations in supplemented does were higher (P < 0.05) than controls at day 28 of lactation. Both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocyte subsets were lowest at day 28 of gestation. There were no treatment effects on the three types of lymphocytes. Subsets of CD4⁺ in the weanling pups were higher (P < 0.05) for the 0.064% β-1,3–1,6-glucan supplementation group than the other two groups. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of β-1,3–1,6-glucan reduced feed intake during the first 14 days but had no adverse effects on the reproductive performance and body weight of does. Dietary supplementation with 0.064% β-1,3–1,6-glucan significantly inhibited delayed-type immune reaction of Th1 and significantly reduced serum IgG concentration of does at the late gestation stage but increased serum IgM and IgG concentrations at the late lactation stage.     

Chronic non-progressive pneumonia of sheep in New Zealand – a review of the role of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae

Chronic non-progressive pneumonia (CNP) is a common disease which affects lambs in New Zealand during late summer and autumn. Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae can be recovered from a high proportion of lesions but it is also present in some normal lungs. Bacteria, especially Pasteurella haemolytica, can also be recovered from more than half the lungs of affected animals.

Isolates of M. ovipneumoniae are genetically heterogeneous, as demonstrated by examination of their DNA or total cellular proteins, and are serologically heterogeneous as shown by metabolic inhibition tests. The number of strains present in New Zealand is large and several distinguishable strains can be recovered from each affected lung. Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae has pathogenic potential as indicated by its ability to produce hydrogen peroxide, cause ciliostasis and by its possession of a capsule.

Chronic non-progressive pneumonia can be transmitted consistently to over 50% of lambs by inoculation of pooled pneumonic lung homogenate and transmission can be suppressed by broad spectrum antibiotics. In contrast, penicillin does not prevent the development of lesions but diminishes their severity. Pooled lung homogenate treated with digitonin, which inactivates mycoplasmas, has failed to transmit CNP. Pure cultures of M. ovipneumoniae produce only mild lesions in some animals, whereas inoculation with pooled lung homogenate (from which no viruses were isolated) containing mixed strains of M. ovipneumoniae and free from bacteria, is more effective in producing lesions.

Research work to date suggests that CNP may be initiated by colonisation of the lung by M. ovipneumoniae which causes ciliostasis and elicits an exudate allowing colonisation of the lungs by bacteria especially P. haemolytica and by other strains of M. ovipneumoniae. The immune response to the initial strain of M. ovipneumoniae may inhibit its replication but would be less effective in inhibiting heterologous strains of the organism allowing their sequential replication. Eventually production of a broad immune response to M. ovipneumoniae would lead to its elimination which in turn would facilitate the elimination of other microorganisms and the resolution of lesions. As natural immunity to CNP occurs within the first year, it may be possible to develop an effective and useful vaccine. Such a vaccine may need to include multiple strains of M. ovipneumoniae.     

An assessment of the herd-level impact of the Theileria orientalis (Ikeda) epidemic of cattle in New Zealand, 2012–2013: a mixed methods approach

AIM: To estimate incidence risk, cumulative mortality and case fatality rate within herds affected by bovine anaemia associated with Theileria orientalis infection (TABA), in New Zealand during the early phase of the epidemic (August 2012–September 2013).

METHODS: A mixed methods approach was utilised to integrate data from various sources, including a detailed questionnaire carried out on 18 dairy farms which had experienced cases of TABA; a brief telephone survey of an additional 139 case farms; and data extracted from a Ministry for Primary Industries database for a further 42 case farms. The subsequent analysis determined incidence risk, cumulative mortality and case fatality rates for beef and dairy herds.

RESULTS: Data were analysed from 196/263 (74%) known case farms at the date of closing the questionnaires. These farms contained 99,505 cattle; 2,847 animals were reported with clinical disease, and a further 590 animals were recorded as having died from TABA. The within-herd incidence risk, cumulative mortality and case fatality rate were consistent between the three data sources, did not differ between beef and dairy herds, and were estimated to be 0.97 (inter-quartile range (IQR) 0.36–2.07)%, 0.23 (IQR 0.00–0.66)% and 16.67 (IQR 0.00–33.33)%, respectively. There was substantial variability in the level of impact, with 22 farms severely affected (incidence risk >5% and cumulative mortality >5%).

CONCLUSIONS: The mixed methods approach was effective in dealing with the disparate data sources. The inclusion of the majority of farms known to be affected at the time the questionnaires were performed implies that the information is likely to be representative. The collective outputs of the analyses represent the best estimate available of within-herd measures of disease frequency in the early phase of the epidemic in New Zealand. The limitations of the data imply that their primary application may be to inform the design of subsequent structured observational field studies.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study provide information on the impact of TABA on cattle farms during the emergence and early spread of the disease, as well as for generating hypotheses on causal mechanisms and risk factors that may influence the course of disease.     

Osteodystrophic diseases of sheep in New Zealand II—“Bowie” or “bent-leg”

Extract

This disease was first observed in sheep on a property near Bulls, and has since been found on five other properties in the vicinity. It is an insidious paradontal disease, characterized by a chronic inflammatory process in the periodontal membrane of one or more teeth, resulting in looseness of teeth and in unwillingness to graze and consequent starvation.     

Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo: an abortifacient in New Zealand? A review of the literature

From experimental and clinical evidence, Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo has been suspected as an abortifacient in cattle overseas. Early reports from North America and Australia described clinical disease with abortions occurring up to 12 weeks later associated with hardjo infections. Recent studies in the United Kingdom have found hardjo infections in nearly 69 percent of aborted foetuses from problem farms, and a prospective epidemiological study determined a relationship between hardjo infection and abortion on one property. In New Zealand, although the epidemiology of hardjo infections has been studied, little attention has been paid to the potential abortifacient role of this organism. In part this is due to the impracticality of using serology to diagnose infections that may have occurred months prior to the abortion. Future research to resolve this question should therefore revolve around hardjo isolation, cohort studies, and the examination of pathogenic mechanisms by which hardjo may induce abortion in cattle.     

Salmonella Brandenburg — emergence of a variant strain on a sheep farm in the South Island of New Zealand

AIM: To compare the rectal and I/V administration of tramadol in dogs, to assess both its pharmacokinetic properties and absolute bioavailability.

METHODS: After rectal administration via suppositories and I/V injection of tramadol (4 mg/kg), the concentration of tramadol and its main metabolites, O-desmethyl-tramadol (M1), N-desmethyl-tramadol (M2) and N,O-didesmethyl-tramadol (M5), were determined in plasma, using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). A balanced cross-over study was used, involving six male Beagle dogs.

RESULTS: Plasma concentrations after rectal and I/V administration were fitted on the basis of mono- and bi-compartmental models, respectively. Following rectal administration tramadol was detected from 5 minutes up to 10 hours, in lesser amounts than M5 and M2, while M1 was detected in negligible amounts. Following I/V administration tramadol was detected up to 10 hours, M2 and M5 were detected at similar concentrations, and M1 was present at low concentrations. The area under the curve (AUC) of the three metabolites did not differ significantly after either route of administration of tramadol. The absolute bioavailability of tramadol via rectal administration was 10 (SD 4)%.

CONCLUSIONS: After rectal administration of tramadol suppositories, absorption of the active ingredient was rapid, but its metabolism quickly transformed the parent drug to high levels of M2 and M5.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In the dog, rectal pharmaceutical formulation of tramadol would have a different pharmacokinetic behaviour than in humans.     

Characterisation of extended-spectrum β-lactamase and AmpC β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolated from companion animals in New Zealand

Abstract

AIMS: To assess the occurrence of, and characterise, extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC β-lactamase (AmpC)-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolated by veterinary diagnostic laboratories from infection sites in companion animals in New Zealand.

METHODS: Selected Enterobacteriaceae isolates were submitted by seven New Zealand veterinary diagnostic laboratories. They were isolated from infection sites in companion animals between June 2012 and June 2013, and were resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, fluoroquinolones, or any combination of two or more antimicrobials. Based on disk diffusion test results, the isolates were phenotypically categorised according to production of ESBL and AmpC. Genes for ESBL and AmpC production were amplified by PCR and sequenced. Escherichia coli isolates were also typed by multilocus sequence typing.

RESULTS: A total of 115 isolates matching the inclusion criteria were obtained from the participating laboratories, of which 74 (64%) originated from dogs and 29 (25%) from cats. Seven bacterial species were identified, of which E. coli was the most common (87/115, 76%). Of the 115 isolates, 10 (9%) expressed the ESBL phenotype, 43 (37%) the AmpC phenotype, and seven (6%) both ESBL and AmpC phenotypes. Of the 60 ESBL and AmpC-producing isolates, 36 (60%) were E. coli. Amongst these isolates, 27/60 (45%) were classified as multidrug resistant, compared with 15/55 (27%) non-ESBL or AmpC-producing isolates (p<0.01). Ninety five isolates were resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and 58 (61%) of these were ESBL or AmpC-producing. The predominant ESBL genes were bla_CTX-M-14 and bla_CTX-M-15, and the dominant plasmid-encoded AmpC gene was bla_CMY-2. Thirty-eight E. coli multilocus sequence types (ST) were identified, and the most prevalent were ST12 (12/89, 13%), ST131 (6/89, 7%) and ST648 (6/89, 7%). ESBL and AmpC-producing isolates accounted for 35/1,082 (3.2%) of the Enterobacteriaceae isolated by one laboratory network over the study period.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: ESBL and AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae were associated with clinical infections in companion animals in New Zealand, and were often multidrug resistant. In this study, these organisms accounted for <5% of all Enterobacteriaceae isolated from infection sites by one laboratory network, but their prevalence among isolates resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid was 61%. Therefore routine secondary testing for ESBL and AmpC production by Enterobacteriaceae that are resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in primary testing could improve the accuracy of definitive antimicrobial therapy in companion animals in New Zealand.     

Survey of brucellosis at the wildlife–livestock interface on the Zimbabwean side of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis in communal cattle and wildlife at a wildlife–livestock interface in the southeast lowveld of Zimbabwe, part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area. RBT and c-Elisa were used in serial for detection of antibodies against Brucella spp. Between July 2007 and October 2009, a total of 1,158 cattle were tested and the overall seroprevalence of brucellosis was 9.9%. A total of 97 wild animals (African buffaloes (n = 47), impala (n = 33), kudu (n = 16), and giraffe (n = 1)) were tested and only one animal (giraffe) was seropositive for brucellosis (1.03%). Brucella seroprevalence showed an increasing trend with age, with adult cattle (>6 years) recording the highest seroprevalence (11.1%), but the differences were not statistically significant. Similarly, female cattle recorded a relatively higher seroprevalence (10.8%) compared to males (7.9%), but the difference was not significant. However, a significant (P < 0.001) association between Brucella seropositivity and abortion history was recorded in female cattle. Similarly, Brucella seropositivity was significantly (P < 0.01) associated with a history of grazing in the park for female cattle. Overall, from the interface area, cattle with a history of grazing in the park recorded a significantly (P < 0.01) higher Brucella seroprevalence (13.5%) compared to those with no history of grazing in the park (4.9%). The significant association between abortion history and seropositivity observed in this study illustrates the potential economic significance of Brucella in cattle in this area. Hence, public awareness and further epidemiological studies of the disease in wildlife, livestock, and humans in the study area are of great importance.     

Shearing during pregnancy — review of a policy to increase birthweight and survival of lambs in New Zealand pastoral farming systems

Over the past decade, lambing percentages have risen in conjunction with a rise in the percentage of multiple lambs born. Multiple-born lambs are smaller than their singleton counterparts and are particularly susceptible to starvation-exposure. Any technique that can increase the birthweight or thermoregulatory capability, or both, of otherwise lightweight lambs has the potential to substantially increase survival of multiple-born lambs.

In the United Kingdom under housed conditions, shearing during pregnancy has been shown to increase both the birthweight and thermoregulatory capability of newborn lambs. However, shearing during pregnancy under pastoral conditions has failed to consistently affect the newborn lamb’s thermoregulatory capability. In contrast, under New Zealand’s pastoral conditions shearing during pregnancy has been found to increase birthweight, but results have been inconsistent in both magnitude and birth-rank specificity. Increase in feed intake by the dam, types of shearing comb used and changes in gestation length do not explain the variation observed. When studies involving shearing during pregnancy are collated it becomes apparent that there are two criteria that must be met to achieve a birthweight response. Firstly, the dam must have the potential to respond and secondly, the dam must have the means to respond.

Any increase in lamb survival through shearing during pregnancy would be predominantly through an increase in birthweight of otherwise lightweight lambs. However, in the few studies conducted to date, an increase in birthweight has not resulted in a statistically significant increase in survival. For an increase in birthweight to have a positive effect on lamb survival, lambs must be otherwise destined to be born within a birthweight range in which survival rate is below optimum (<4.0 kg), and the increase in birthweight observed must move a significant proportion of otherwise lightweight lambs into a higher range of survival rate.     

Prevalence and significant geospatial clusters of bovine tuberculosis infection at livestock–wildlife interface ecosystem in Eastern Tanzania

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is an important neglected zoonosis that affects livestock, wildlife and human. A study to determine prevalence and geospatial clusters for BTB was conducted from June 2010 to March 2012 at livestock–wildlife interface areas (LWIA). A total of 1,288 cattle located in vicinity of Mikumi-Selous ecosystem Tanzania were tested. Single Intradermal Comparative Tuberculin Test and spatial scan statistic analysis were applied to establish the status of the disease and identify significant spatial BTB clusters. Overall individual prevalence was 3.7 % (n?=?1,288) (95 % CI?=?2.8–4.9) and 7.8 % (95 % CI?=?6.4–9.4) with cut-off of >4 and >2 mm, respectively. Villages with at least one reactor were 55.8 % (n?=?43). Reactivity was significantly higher in Mvomero and Kilosa districts compared with Kilombero and Ulanga districts (χ ²?=?15.9; P?<?0.001). Significant spatial BTB clusters were revealed at 11 villages. BTB clustering was significant in Kilosa and Mvomero districts compared with Kilombero and Ulanga districts. There was overlap and aggregation of BTB clusters covering south and south-east of Kilosa district bordering Mikumi National Park (MNP) and Mvomero. Generally, clustering occurred around major rivers. The current study provides useful information on the dynamics and epidemiological status of BTB around the wildlife–livestock–human interface, it reveals that the wildlife are at risk of BTB from infected livestock. The study revealed hotspots for BTB that can be applied to guide implementation of participatory intervention at LWIA and control strategies in marginalised pastoralist communities. This study calls for similar studies in other Tanzania’s LWIA for efficient intervention of BTB countrywide.     

A Descriptive Study of Training Methods for Fédération Equestre Internationale Endurance Horses in New Zealand

Training measures, particularly those that examine the interactions between training volume, speed, and recovery, can improve understanding of training practices that contribute to success and avoid adverse horse welfare outcomes in endurance competitions. This study describes the training of Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) 100–160 km level horses in New Zealand. A convenience sample of 16 participants and 25 horses were surveyed before commencement of training. Participants then reported daily data for an entire nine-month season of training and competition. Participants began their season with predetermined goals and individual training plans for each horse. They intended to use competitions for training. Competitions contributed a median of 44% [IQR, 36%–49%] of total accumulated distance (in training and competition) for each horse for the season, despite being only 11% (207/1,933) of all days worked. Most starts (80%) were in domestic-level (CEN) competition ≤80 km. Speed ranged from 2–18 km/hour on home training days to 6–18.5 km/hour in CEN competitions and 10.9–16.9 km/hour in FEI competitions. Horses were worked 34% [IQR, 21–38] of days in training, ranging from 12% to 55% for individual horses. The most common horse health problem was lameness, affecting 12/25 horses, for a median of 9 (range, 1–78) days. This study highlights the potential for CEN data as a resource to improve understanding of training and competition load, speed, and recovery and therefore reduce adverse horse welfare outcomes in FEI competitions.     

A multi-analysis approach for space–time and economic evaluation of risks related with livestock diseases: The example of FMD in Peru

This study presents a multi-disciplinary decision-support tool, which integrates geo-statistics, social network analysis (SNA), spatial-stochastic spread model, economic analysis and mapping/visualization capabilities for the evaluation of the sanitary and socio-economic impact of livestock diseases under diverse epidemiologic scenarios. We illustrate the applicability of this tool using foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Peru as an example. The approach consisted on a flexible, multistep process that may be easily adapted based on data availability. The first module (mI) uses a geo-statistical approach for the estimation (if needed) of the distribution and abundance of susceptible population (in the example here, cattle, swine, sheep, goats, and camelids) at farm-level in the region or country of interest (Peru). The second module (mII) applies SNA for evaluating the farm-to-farm contact patterns and for exploring the structure and frequency of between-farm animal movements as a proxy for potential disease introduction or spread. The third module (mIII) integrates mI–II outputs into a spatial-stochastic model that simulates within- and between-farm FMD-transmission. The economic module (mIV) connects outputs from mI–III to provide an estimate of associated direct and indirect costs. A visualization module (mV) is also implemented to graph and map the outputs of module I–IV. After 1000 simulated epidemics, the mean (95% probability interval) number of outbreaks, infected animals, epidemic duration, and direct costs were 37 (1, 1164), 2152 (1, 13, 250), 63 days (0, 442), and US$ 1.2 million (1072, 9.5 million), respectively. Spread of disease was primarily local (<4.5 km), but geolocation and type of index farm strongly influenced the extent and spatial patterns of an epidemic. The approach is intended to support decisions in the last phase of the FMD eradication program in Peru, in particular to inform and support the implementation of risk-based surveillance and livestock insurance systems that may help to prevent and control potential FMD virus incursions into Peru.