The longevity of hillslope soil in SE and NW Australia

The cosmogenic nuclide ¹⁰Be that is produced in the atmosphere and falls out in rainfall (‘garden-variety’ ¹⁰Be) is used at a site in SE Australia and one in NW Australia to estimate soil formation rates and natural erosion rates. Soil formation rates of 1–7 m/Ma are found at the SE Australian site, while higher rates of 10–27 m/Ma are found in NW Australia. These are compared with estimates of modern erosion rates based on surveys of sedimentation in farm dams or ¹³⁷Cs in hillslope soils. In both cases, modern erosion rates are markedly higher than either soil formation rates or natural erosion rates measured here. At the NW Australian site, the ¹⁰Be data are complemented by measurements of in situ³⁶Cl in nearby limestone cuesta surfaces. These show that the hard-rock surfaces are eroding more slowly than the soils, and that relief is therefore increasing in this landscape. This contribution to a small but growing body of studies of the likely longevity of hillslope soils in Australia shows that ‘garden-variety’ ¹⁰Be can be a very useful tracer, but only if its transport both within the solum and saprolite is taken in account.     

The critical role of human activities in land degradation in Rwanda

Agriculture on steep land is widespread in Rwanda. Conservation strategies, such as grass strips and terracing, were introduced by the government and international agencies to lower soil losses due to fluvial processes in this fragile setting. Minimal attention has been given to assessing soil losses due to farming activities or to developing conservation strategies to control soil erosion resulting from these human activities. This study evaluates soil losses resulting from both runoff and human activities in a densely populated region of northwestern Rwanda. During a 4-year period, 11 Wischmeier-type plots were cultivated with the typical local crops. Grass strips and grass/shrub strips were planted at 5-m intervals on eight of these plots. Five meters is the common spacing of this government-encouraged conservation practice. These strips were found to be useful for reducing soil loss from runoff, but they were relatively ineffective in curtailing soil losses resulting from human activities associated with the local farming system. The soil loss on the cultivated plots, resulting from activities such as hoeing, averaged over 68·2 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Unless conservation strategies curtail human induced soil losses as well as those due to fluvial processes, the land resource will continue to degrade and farmland will cease to be productive in the study area.     

Assessment of gully erosion susceptibility using different DEM-derived topographic factors in the black soil region of Northeast China

As a primary sediment source, gully erosion leads to severe land degradation and poses a threat to food and ecological security. Therefore, identification of susceptible areas is critical to the prevention and control of gully erosion. This study aimed to identify areas prone to gully erosion using four machine learning methods with derived topographic attributes. Eight topographic attributes (elevation, slope aspect, slope degree, catchment area, plan curvature, profile curvature, stream power index, and topographic wetness index) were derived as feature variables controlling gully occurrence from digital elevation models with four different pixel sizes (5.0 m, 12.5 m, 20.0 m, and 30.0 m). A gully inventory map of a small agricultural catchment in Heilongjiang, China, was prepared through a combination of field surveys and satellite imagery. Each topographic attribute dataset was randomly divided into two portions of 70% and 30% for calibrating and validating four machine learning methods, namely random forest (RF), support vector machines (SVM), artificial neural network (ANN), and generalized linear models (GLM). Accuracy (ACC), area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), root mean square error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE) were calculated to assess the performance of the four machine learning methods in predicting spatial distribution of gully erosion susceptibility (GES). The results suggested that the selected topographic attributes were capable of predicting GES in the study catchment area. A pixel size of 20.0 m was optimal for all four machine learning methods. The RF method described the spatial relationship between the feature variables and gully occurrence with the greatest accuracy, as it returned the highest values of ACC (0.917) and AUC (0.905) at a 20.0 m resolution. The RF was also the least sensitive to resolutions, followed by SVM (ACC = 0.781–0.891, AUC = 0.724–0.861) and ANN (ACC = 0.744–0.808, AUC = 0.649–0.847). GLM performed poorly in this study (ACC = 0.693–0.757, AUC = 0.608–0.703). Based on the spatial distribution of GES determined using the optimal method (RF + pixel size of 20.0 m), 16% of the study area has very high level susceptibility classes, whereas areas with high, moderate, and low levels of susceptibility make up approximately 24%, 30%, and 31% of the study area, respectively. Our results demonstrate that GES assessment with machine learning methods can successfully identify areas prone to gully erosion, providing reference information for future soil conservation plans and land management. In addition, pixel size (resolution) is the key consideration when preparing suitable datasets of feature variables for GES assessment.     

陕北黄土区切沟内陷穴发育特征研究

通过对陕北黄土区六道沟流域切沟内陷穴进行调查和统计分析,探讨陷穴的发育形态、分布特征及其影响因素。结果表明:陷穴主要形态类型有浅碟形、漏斗形、竖井状以及葫芦状,其断面形态接近于圆形或椭圆形,陷穴形态规模相对偏小,处于成熟期的比例达72.8%;陷穴长轴、短轴和深度之间均具有显著的正相关关系,其中长轴和短轴之间具有较好的线性关系;陷穴主要发育位置为沟道中上游及支沟沟头处,多与黄土桥和跌水相伴而生;切沟为陷穴的形成和发育提供了条件,陷穴亦可促进切沟进一步发展。上述结果完善了切沟内陷穴的发生发育特点和空间分布特征,为深入认识陷穴侵蚀机理,进一步研究陷穴侵蚀状况、陷穴与切沟发育关系以及区域水土流失治理等提供了基础。     

卢旺达共和国山地丘陵区土壤侵蚀调查报告

[目的]在卢旺达山地丘陵区开展土壤侵蚀调查,分析该区土壤侵蚀特征及成因,为尼罗河上游山地丘陵区土壤侵蚀预报和水土流失防治提供科学依据。[方法]在卢旺达布设4条调查路线并选择调查点,于2019年10月17—22日对调查点土壤侵蚀特征、成因及水土保持措施等进行了调查。[结果]卢旺达多山地且以农牧业为主,土壤侵蚀主要发生在坡耕地、损毁林地、建设用地等。坡耕地以片蚀和细沟侵蚀为主。损毁林地以片蚀和细沟侵蚀为主,部分出现沟蚀;当裸露地表形成草地或幼林后均较少发生土壤侵蚀。公路边坡、开挖边坡、土路路面及边坡等在降雨及径流的作用下产生沟蚀,部分路段偶有勤侵蚀发生。梯田是该国最主要的水土保持措施,具有较好的生态和经济效益。[结论]卢旺达土壤侵蚀主要以水力侵蚀为主,重力侵蚀次之。不合理的开垦坡地、毁林,加之多山的地形,导致侵蚀较为严重,威胁当地的生态安全及粮食安全。该区缺乏水土流失监测资料,需要重视水土保持基础理论研究,加强水土流失基础数据的监测和采集,同时需要加强其水土保持措施及土地管理工作,保障卢旺达农业的可持续绿色发展。     

基于地形因子的土壤侵蚀评价指数修正 ——以陕北安塞集水区为例

地形是影响土壤流失的重要因素,小流域尺度上的土壤侵蚀评价指数(SL_(sw))对于地形的研究过于简单,因此本研究对SL_(sw)中的地形因子(G)进行修正,进而得出G因子修正后的土壤侵蚀评价指数(SL_(sw)_G)。以黄土丘陵沟壑区——安塞集水区为研究区,基于GIS技术,利用2006—2012年安塞集水区的数字高程模型(DEM)数据、水文观测站的日降雨量数据、土壤采样数据和土地利用数据,计算研究区2006—2012年逐年的SL_(sw),利用安塞集水区实测的输沙量,验证修正的SL_(sw)_G指数的有效性,并分析安塞集水区土壤侵蚀强度的时空变化特征。结果表明,修正前后土壤侵蚀情况分布基本相同,均呈现东南部地区SL_(sw)指数高,而西北部地区相对较低。在安塞集水区东南部,由于人为因素的影响,土壤保持措施相对较弱,同时土壤中黏粒和粉粒质量较轻,黏粒和粉粒湿时有明显的黏结性,降雨过程中容易被水冲刷;根据土壤采样点的采样数据表明,东南部地区土壤中黏粒和粉粒的含量较高,较容易造成土壤侵蚀。修正前后指数通过T检验得出,SL_(sw)和SL_(sw)_G具有方差齐次性,P=0.0370.05;通过与实测输沙量的比较,修正后SL_(sw)_G与实测输沙量的相关系数大于修正前SL_(sw)与实测输沙量的相关系数(0.390.36),修正后的相关性较修正前的相关性有所增加,说明修正是有效的,修正后的SL_(sw)指数能够更好地评价研究区域土壤侵蚀状况。     

The impact of environmental change on the intensity and spatial pattern of water erosion in a semi-arid mountainous Andean environment

Aerial photographs taken in 1976 and 1989 and a field survey in 1999 showed that land use in a 900-ha catchment in the southern part of the Ecuadorian Andes is highly dynamic. Over 23 years, ca. 83 ha of arable land was abandoned and ca. 70 ha was taken into agricultural production. Changes in land use were not spatially homogeneous. Parcels on unstable geologic formations and close to village centres were preferably set-aside. Land taken into cultivation was preferably located on gently sloping areas close to newly built sites and arterial roads. The area with bush vegetation increased by regeneration of natural vegetation on fields set-aside in the late 1970s and early 1980s. There was a complex interaction between water erosion and environmental change in the study area. Land taken into production was levelled for furrow irrigation: this led to a net reduction in the area susceptible to water erosion. However, one quarter of the area affected only by sheet and rill erosion 23 years ago has since become incised by deep gullies. This increase in gully density was related to inadequate construction and management of irrigation infrastructure, rather than to change in vegetation cover and/or soil erodibility caused by agricultural practices. This factor is often overlooked in studies of the effects of environmental change on geomorphologic processes.     

The effect of plant hedgerows on the spatial distribution of soil erosion and soil fertility on sloping farmland in the purple-soil area of China

Recently the effect of plant hedgerows on controlling soil and water loss has been well recognized, and this technology has been widely applied in the world. However, there are few studies on hedgerows’ effect on soil fertility of sloping lands. With an 8-year fixed field experiment, we investigated the effect of two different hedgerows on soil fertility through comparing with the control. Our results showed that along contour lines across the field, clay particles tended to accumulate above plant hedgerows but to be eroded downward below hedgerows. Except for potassium (K), all plant nutrients and soil organic matter showed the same distribution pattern as clay particles. K, however, was evenly distributed in the field without any noticeable influence from hedgerows. Since the beginning of our field experiment, soil phosphorus (P) kept accumulating, while soil organic matter and K were in depletion. Taken together, our results suggest that better nutrient management for the sloping lands should reduce P but increase farm manure and K. As far as the whole sloping field is concerned, special attention in nutrient management should be paid to the soil stripes below hedgerows, the portions suffering from more serious soil erosion.     

The cost of soil erosion in vineyard fields in the Penedès–Anoia Region (NE Spain)

On-site and off-site environmental impacts of runoff and erosion are usually stressed in order to bring to the public's attention the importance and implications of soil erosion. However, few studies are aimed at calculating the economic implications of erosion, this being the message that farmers and/or policy makers understand best. In this current work we estimated the cost of erosion in vineyards in the Penedès–Anoia region (NE Spain), in which high intensity rain storms (> 80–100 mm h^− 1) are frequent. Modern plantations in the region consist of trained vines, usually planted perpendicular to the maximum slope direction. Broadbase terraces are interspersed between vine rows to intercept surface runoff and convey it out of the field. Part of the sediment generated above these terraces is deposited in them and other parts are either deposited beyond the boundaries of the fields or are exported to the main drainage network. High intensity rainfall produces heavy soil losses (up to 207 Mg ha^− 1 computed in an extreme event in June 2000, which had a maximum intensity in 30-min periods of up to 170 mm h^− 1). To estimate the cost of erosion in vineyard fields of this region, two important aspects were considered. These were a) the cost incurred by the maintenance of the broadbase terraces, drainage channels and filling of ephemeral gullies and b) the cost incurred by the loss of fertilisers (mainly N and P) caused by erosion. According to farmers' records, the former was estimated at 7.5 tractor-hour ha^− 1 year^− 1 (as average), which comprises 5.4% of the income from grape sales. Regarding N and P losses, nutrients exported by runoff were 14.9 kg ha^− 1 N and 11.5 kg ha^− 1 of P, which, if compared to the annual intakes, represent 6% and 26.1% of the N and P respectively. In economic terms, the replacement value of the N and P lost represents 2.4% for N or 1.2% for P of the annual income from the sale of the grapes.     

The effect of natural weed buffers on soil and nitrogen losses in Japan

In Japan, heavy rains from June to October cause severe erosion in the agricultural fields. Natural weed buffers may help conserve the soil and water. We measured the mass balances of the water, soil and nitrogen components in a plot of 159 m² (7.2 m wide and 22.1 m long). Plant growth in the plot was dominated by the weeds Humulus scandens Merrill and Poa annua L. We also evaluated the ability of the natural weed buffer to reduce soil and nitrogen losses.Measurements of the mass balances of the water, soil and nitrogen components showed that 93.1% of the total water received by the plot was lost through percolation. The weed buffer captured 99.6% of the soil introduced into the plot. The plot stored 80.0% of the total nitrogen input, while 13.4% percolated through the soil and 1.8% flowed off the plot from the surface. Only 0.1% of the nitrogen was taken up by plants.Because 99.6% of the soil and 80.0% of the nitrogen components were captured, we concluded that the natural weed buffer was very effective in minimizing soil and nitrogen losses. As Japanese farmers grow older and more agricultural fields in the semi-mountainous regions of Japan fall into disuse, the natural weeds that grow on those fields may become efficient tools for conserving the soil and water in these regions.     

The challenge of soil loss control and vegetation restoration in the karst area of southwestern China

Soil loss, both from surface soil loss and subsurface soil leakage, in the karst regions of southwestern China is a serious environmental problem that threatens sustainability in that region. The surface soil loss has been extensively studied, and many studies have been conducted to investigate the causes, impacts and mechanisms involved, but the study of subsurface soil leakage has received little attention due to the difficulties in studying the natural conditions. There is no consensus on the overall proportions between surface soil loss and subsurface soil leakage. To control soil loss, improve ecological restoration, and help locals out of poverty, the Chinese government carried out a series of ecological restoration projects in the karst regions of southwestern China starting in the 1980s. As a result, the intensity and areal extent of soil loss continues to decrease and the ecological situation is steadily improving. However, because of the fragile ecosystem in the karst regions, the soil loss control is a long-term task, and the soil loss in some karst regions continues to be a problem. Subsequently, we put forward some suggestions for the policy makers relative to conservation of soil loss and vegetation restoration. These suggestions include: (1) government, private organizations and individuals are encouraged to raise funds for soil loss control and vegetation restoration; (2) nature reserves should be established to increase biodiversity; (3) engineering projects such as small reservoirs, ponds, and flow diversion channels should be constructed in marginal karst regions.     

The assessment of soil loss by water erosion in China

Soil erosion is a major environmental problem in China. Planning for soil erosion control requires accurate soil erosion rate and spatial distribution information. The aim of this article is to present the methods and results of the national soil erosion survey of China completed in 2011. A multi-stage, unequal probability, systematic area sampling method was employed. A total of 32,948 sample units, which were either 0.2–3 km² small catchments or 1 km² grids, were investigated on site. Soil erosion rates were calculated with the Chinese Soil Loss Equation in 10 m by 10 m grids for each sample unit, along with the area of soil loss exceeding the soil loss tolerance and the proportion of area in excess of soil loss tolerance relative to the total land area of the sample units. Maps were created by using a spatial interpolation method at national, river basin, and provincial scales. Results showed that the calculated average soil erosion rate was 5 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in China, and was 18.2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for sloped, cultivated cropland. Intensive soil erosion occurred on cropland, overgrazing grassland, and sparsely forested land. The proportions of soil loss tolerance exceedance areas of sample units were interpolated through the country in 250 m grids. The national average ratio was 13.5%, which represents the area of land in China that requires the implementation of soil conservation practices. These survey results and the maps provide the basic information for national conservation planning and policymaking.     

基于GIS/CSLE的四川省水土流失重点防治区土壤侵蚀研究

掌握四川省省级水土流失重点防治区水土流失情况、空间分异规律及其内在驱动因素对生态预警和土壤侵蚀治理等具有重要意义。应用中国土壤流失方程(CSLE)计算四川省省级水土流失重点防治区土壤侵蚀状况,通过不同土壤侵蚀敏感性评价方法识别中国土壤流失方程(CSLE)敏感因子,借助地理探测器探究重点防治区土壤侵蚀空间分异规律及其内在驱动力。结果表明:四川省省级水土流失重点防治区水土流失面积占比27.16%,平均土壤侵蚀模数为806.08 t/(km^2·a),属于轻度侵蚀,但区内土壤侵蚀差异明显,局部存在严重水土流失;土壤侵蚀敏感性分析表明,生物措施因子B是中国土壤流失方程(CSLE)中最敏感的因子;不同水土保持分区土壤侵蚀定量归因表明,土地利用方式是土壤侵蚀空间异质性的主要驱动力,且影响因子两两交互均能增加对土壤侵蚀空间分布的解释能力,各因子在不同水土保持分区作用程度存在显著差异。因而,在应用中国土壤流失方程(CSLE)计算土壤侵蚀量时,基于不同研究区针对较为敏感因子建立区域化算法是提高计算精度的关键。     

The cost of soil lost from fields due to removal on harvested sugarbeet: a case study in Turkey

Abstract. Soil removed on sugarbeet ( Beta vulgaris L .) at harvest may be an important factor in soil degradation causing significant decline in soil productivity. This study evaluated soil losses on sugarbeet and estimated the cost of plant nutrients lost by this process. The losses were calculated using data from the agricultural reports published by the General Directorate of the Turkish Sugar Industry. Organic matter and plant available nutrient contents of soils removed from sugarbeet fields were determined. It was estimated that approximately 30 000 t of soil is lost annually in Erzurum, and 1.2 million t in the whole of Turkey. The cost of N, P and K losses is approximately 60 000 US$ annually for the study area.     

The significance of drilling date and crop cover with reference to soil erosion by water,with implications for mitigating erosion on agricultural land in South East England

Early drilling of autumn‐planted cereals is strongly advised in UK government publications targeted at farmers, in part as a measure to combat soil erosion by water. However, in years when rainfall is heavy in early autumn, this strategy is ineffective. Late drilling of autumn‐planted cereals also increases the risk of erosion, but for a different reason: crop cover develops more slowly in cooler weather, resulting in a longer exposure of nearly bare ground. The crucial factor affecting both strategies is the timing of autumn and early winter rainfall. We discuss a conceptual model based on the notion of a ‘window of opportunity’ for erosion, comprising the relationship between drilling date, date of attainment of a sufficiently protective crop cover and the timing of rainfall; variations are presented for different weather conditions and management choices. Of these three factors, only the date of drilling can be chosen by the farmer. The date of attaining a sufficiently protective crop cover can only be predicted approximately. The timing of rainfall cannot be predicted. Thus, erosion control advice to farmers, which is based on choice of date of drilling to minimize erosion during the ‘window of opportunity’, is both difficult to formulate and likely to be ineffective. Sites at risk of erosion need to have better thought‐out mitigation measures in place, rather than relying on a fortuitous temporal pattern of autumn and winter rainfall to minimize the risk of erosion.     

The effect of tea plantation age on soil water-stable aggregates and aggregate-associated carbohydrate in southwestern China

Soil carbohydrates constitute an important component of soil organic matter (SOM), and substantially contribute to the stabilization of soil aggregates. Here, we aimed to investigate the distribution of water-stable aggregates and carbohydrates within water-stable aggregates of soil in tea plantations located in Zhongfeng Township of Mingshan County, Sichuan, which is in southwest China. Samples were collected from tea plantations of different ages (18, 25, 33, and 55 years old) and an area of abandoned land was used as a control(CK). We also examined correlations between soil carbohydrates fractions and aggregate stability. The results showed that the mean weight diameter (MWD) of soil aggregates in the tea plantations was significantly higher than that the control. Furthermore, the soil aggregate stability was significantly enhanced in tea plantations, with the 25-year-old plantation showing the most pronounced effect. Soils in the plantations were also characterized by higher concentrated acid-extracted carbohydrate content, and carbohydrate content in both surface and sub-surface layers were higher in the 25-year-old plantation. We also detected a significant positive correlation between the carbohydrate content of soil and MWD after tea plantation (P < 0.01). Notably, the association between dilute-acid extracted carbohydrate and the aggregate stability showed the highest correlation, indicating this carbohydrate fraction could be used as an index to reflect changes in soil quality during tea plantation development. We should develop a potential fertilisation programme to maintain SOM- Carbohydrates within aggregates and the appropriate pH for preventing soil structure degradation after 25 years of tea planting.     

Land evaluation in an area of severe erosion: The loess plateau of china

Land evaluation is an important basis for landscape and land use planning. A framework was developed for land evaluation in an area of severe erosion, focusing on integrative, process and ecological analyses. Two classification systems, soil quality and erosion risk, were combined in the land evaluation framework. The Quanjiagou catchment, with typical loess hill and gully topography, in the loess plateau of China was selected as the study area. A geographical information system (GIS) was used for data storage, analysis and display. The soil quality classification was based on the main characteristics of the soils (soil organic matter, effective depth of soil and soil moisture); four soil quality classes were defined in the study area. Slope, micro-landform type and the type and processes of soil erosion were integrated to classify the erosion risk. The soil qualities and erosion risk for each site were combined using the GIS to evaluate the suitability of the land for farmland, grassland and forest. By comparing these results with the current land use, measures for better land use and conservation are suggested.     

The role of soil surface conditions in regulating runoff and erosion processes on a metamorphic hillslope (Southern Spain): Soil surface conditions,runoff and erosion in Southern Spain

This study presents the results of an analysis into the role of soil surface conditions in the regulation of soil hydrology and erosive processes at one hillslope under dry Mediterranean climatic conditions. The methodology was based on the analysis of hillslope surface components and their hydrological and erosive function on a patch to scale by means of rainfall simulation and experimental plots. The results showed the existence of a complex eco-geomorphological system composed of a multitude of vegetation patches distributed at random on the hillslope, and where the presence of different surface conditions on the soil can have a sizeable influence on hydrological and erosive behavior. From the hydrological point of view, the runoff generation mechanisms follow a seasonal pattern depending on the moisture of the soil with a different spatial condition, with frequent hydrological disconnections between parts of the hillslope, as in other Mediterranean mountainous regions. Soil surface rock fragments, the layout of tussocks intra-hillslope and previous soil moisture as dynamic control factors in the hydrological and erosive processes are all important.     

基于CSLE模型的巴基斯坦土壤侵蚀评价

通过制作土壤侵蚀图,分析土壤侵蚀主控因子,为巴基斯坦水土流失与保护提供合理的科学依据及治理参考.以土壤侵蚀抽样调查单元数据和土壤侵蚀因子数据为数据源,基于CSLE模型分别以空间插值法和地图代数法定量计算巴基斯坦水蚀区土壤侵蚀图,以空间插值结果为参照对地图代数计算结果做直方图匹配得到巴基斯坦水蚀速率图;采用水利部SL 1...