Systemic nocardiosis in a reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus).

Systemic infection by Nocardia asteroides was diagnosed in a reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus). At necropsy, the animal had enlarged tracheobronchial lymph nodes, pleural and peritoneal effusions, and numerous, multifocal to coalescing, yellow, firm nodules with inspissated pus in the lung, pleura, omentum, liver, heart, adrenal glands, and left kidney. Microscopically, the nodules consisted of foci of pyogranulomatous inflammation. Microscopic lesions were present in the grossly affected organs as well as spleen and brain. Sections stained with Gram and modified Fite-Faraco histochemical stains had numerous gram-positive, variably acid fast, beaded and branching filamentous organisms in the necrotic centers. N. asteroides was isolated from the lung, bronchial lymph nodes, liver, and left kidney. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of systemic N. asteroides infection in a reindeer.     

Fiber digestibility by black lemurs (Eulemur macaco macaco).

Black lemurs, Eulemur macaco, are classified as generalist feeders, consuming a proportion of fruits and leaves that varies with seasonal availability. It is hypothesized that black lemurs are capable of using neutral detergent fiber (NDF) as a source of energy through fiber fermentation in the cecum and large intestine. In captivity, they are typically fed a diet of commercially available primate biscuits and readily available produce, both of which are limited in NDE Digestibility trials were conducted on 14 black lemurs; 12 were housed in groups (four, three, three, and two) and 2 were individually housed. The lemurs were fed four manufactured feeds differing in fiber form and content. A commercially available primate biscuit, containing approximately 27% NDF, served as the control diet. The second diet contained the same primate biscuits, which were ground and then incorporated into a fiber-based gel matrix. The third and fourth diets were formulated using soybean hulls or ground corncobs as the fiber source, resulting in 53% and 47% NDF, respectively. Produce was added to the diet at 36% (dry matter basis). Dry matter digestibility differed significantly among all diets. Neutral detergent fiber digestibility was highest for the ground biscuit in gel and lowest for the two high-fiber gel diets, with biscuit digestibility values falling between the two extremes. The high-fiber gel diets were successful in increasing the NDF concentrations of the primate diets; however, black lemurs were capable of only limited fiber digestion.     

Leptospira infection in two black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis michaeli).

Two black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis michaeli) developed clinical leptospirosis without hemolytic crises. The first rhinoceros presented with peracute depression, anorexia, rear leg trembling, dysuria, glucosuria, gastrointestinal discomfort, and decreased fecal output and died within 12 hr. Necropsy and histopathology revealed lesions within multiple organs. Leptospirosis was diagnosed postmortem based on positive fluorescent antibody staining of liver. The second rhinoceros presented 2 mo later with similar signs. It survived with treatment and was diagnosed with leptospirosis based on serology using microscopic agglutination testing and detection of urinary antigen using a fluorescent antibody technique. Leptospira kirschneri serovar grippotyphosa was postulated as the etiologic agent, with transmission probably occurring through wallow contamination by wild raccoons (Procyon lotor).     

Trypanosoma evansi infections in Himalayan black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus).

The Asiatic or Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) is an endangered species. In South Asian countries, captive tamed Himalayan bears are commonly used by roving bear-charmers to entertain the people in rural and urban areas. In captivity, this species confronts several psychophysical traumas and communicable diseases, which are prevalent in other domestic species. The present report describes four cases of Trypanosoma evansi infection in live Himalayan charming bears, which originated from the Faisalabad and Jhang districts of Pakistan. The condition was characterized by pyrexia, accelerated pulse, tachypnea, depression, anemic mucous membranes, and ataxia (n = 3). Microscopic examination of peripheral blood films revealed moderate (n = 2) or high (n = 2) numbers of T. evansi. All four bears were treated twice at 3-day intervals with suramin sodium by using almost twice the dosage recommended for common domestic animals (10 mg/kg). The treated bears were found aparasitemic on repeat blood testing on days 5, 7, and 10 post-treatment. No adverse effects were noted and all four cases recovered in 3-7 days after completion of the second round of treatment. One bear died 8 days after the second treatment (day 11). This is the first report of T. evansi in bears.     

Metastatic pulmonary adenocarcinoma in a llama (Lama glama).

An adult female llama with a comminuted fracture of the left femoral head was necropsied. A firm multinodular mass infiltrated skeletal muscle adjacent to the fracture. Multiple, firm, white nodules were in the pulmonary parenchyma and pleura. A single nodule was in the liver. Microscopically, transition from nonneoplastic bronchiolar epithelium to neoplastic epithelium that formed acinar structures was evident at bronchioloalveolar junctions. A diagnosis of pulmonary adenocarcinoma was made. Similar neoplastic tissue was in the liver and in the perifemoral mass. Immunohistochemically, neoplastic cells were positive for pan-cytokeratin, cytokeratin 7, and cytokeratin 5/6 antibodies and negative for vimentin and cytokeratins 8/18 and 20.     

Retrospective evaluation of renal disease in captive black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya).

Six of 15 (40%) inactive medical records of adult black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) at one zoological institution included either a pre- or postmortem diagnosis of renal disease. In these six cases, significantly abnormal hematologic and serum chemistry values were reported at onset of azotemia, onset of clinical signs, and at euthanasia. Average age of onset of azotemia was 14.8 +/- 2.9 yr, with clinical signs of disease noted at 17 +/- 4.7 yr. In four of the cases (66.6%), azotemia was documented earlier than the onset of clinical signs of renal disease. Average duration of clinical disease was 2.83 +/- 1.6 yr, with an average age at euthanasia of 18 +/- 4.7 yr. Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis with secondary glomerular sclerosis was present in all cases. Thirteen of an additional 20 institutions in the United States that have held Alouatta caraya responded to a survey for prevalence of renal disease. These institutions showed a lower prevalence (15.1%) of renal disease in complete, inactive records, a higher prevalence of glomerulonephritis, and similar significant clinicopathologic values.     

Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma in a North American black bear (Ursus americanus).

A 10-yr-old female black bear (Ursus americanus) at the North Carolina Zoological Park presented with a 2-wk history of intermittent coughing and stertor. The animal was anesthetized for examination, and at intubation, a large mass associated with the tonsils and larynx was observed obstructing the airway. Cardiopulmonary collapse occurred during the procedure, and efforts at resuscitation were ineffective. At necropsy, an 8 cm times 6 cm times 5 cm mass was present in the larynx, infiltrating the epiglottis and obstructing the airway. Regional lymph nodes were mildly enlarged and contained tan inspissated substance. Histologically, the neoplasm was composed of nests of keratinizing squamous epithelial cells with evidence of lymphatic invasion and metastases to regional lymph nodes.     

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a juvenile southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor).

A 21-mo-old female southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) developed acute upper respiratory dyspnea in association with lymphadenopathy and marked immature lymphocytosis. A diagnosis of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was reached on the basis of the morphologic and cytochemical characteristics of peripheral lymphoblasts. Antineoplastic chemotherapy included administration of cytarabine, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and doxorubicin, with clinical remission achieved 19 days after initiation of treatment. The rhinoceros died, however, of congestive heart failure, presumably secondary to doxorubicin cardiotoxicity and a particular sensitivity of rhinoceros myocardial tissue to free hydroxyl radicals. The pharmacologic effects of any therapeutic agent need to be carefully considered before use in the black rhinoceros, especially within the context of the unique physiology of this species.     

Cutaneous and pulmonary mycosis in green anacondas (Euncectes murinus).

Two dead, captive green anacondas (Eunectes murinus), including one male and one female, submitted for necropsy were in poor body condition, having multiple, scattered, dark red foci on the scales and mottled lungs. Both snakes had severe mycotic dermatitis. In addition, the male snake had mycotic stomatitis, and the female snake had mycotic pneumonia. Trichophyton sp., Verticillium sp., and Alternaria sp. were isolated from the dermal lesions. The pulmonary lesions were morphologically consistent with Aspergillus sp. Bacterial organisms isolated from skin and internal organs included Chryseobacterium meningosepticum, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Providencia rettgeri. Mycotic diseases can be devastating to reptiles, and suboptimal husbandry and captivity were likely the predisposing factors that led to opportunistic invasion in these snakes.     

Idiopathic distal esophageal dilation in a southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor).

An adult female southern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) experienced intermittent periods of regurgitation while eating, suggesting an esophageal disorder. Endoscopy for evaluation of the trachea, esophagus, and stomach revealed a 30-mm nasopharyngeal orifice with associated recess located in the caudodorsal pharynx and a 10-cm dilated segment of the distal esophagus that was presumably the cause of regurgitation. Dietary management of esophageal dilation through short-term utilization of a "soft feed" program successfully eliminated the regurgitation. This is the first report of esophageal dysfunction in a rhinoceros.     

A review of some of the health issues of captive black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis).

In captivity, black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are beset by many disease syndromes not described in black rhinoceroses in the wild. Hemolytic anemia, hepatopathy, and ulcerative dermatopathy that lead to increased morbidity and mortality characterize these syndromes. It is uncertain whether these are separate disease syndromes with different etiologies or the same disease with different manifestations. This article offers a brief review of some of the health issues of concern for the captive black rhinoceros population and proposes some possible avenues of research for consideration.     

Lack of maedi viral related RNA in pulmonary carcinoma of sheep (jaagsiekte).

Molecular hybridisation with radioactively labelled DNA complementary to the RNA of the maedi virus was used to probe for homologous RNA in the polysome fraction of pulmonary carcinomas (jaagiekte) of Awassi sheep. No sequence homology was detected, which suggests that maedi (or visna) virus is not implicated in the aetiology of pulmonary carcinoma of sheep.     

Effect of venipuncture site and anticoagulant on selected hematologic values in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis).

Paired blood samples were collected from the ear and radial vein of four captive healthy adult black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis). Samples were collected using heparin or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as an anticoagulant. Packed cell volume (PCV) and total protein (TP) values were compared between samples drawn from the two venipuncture sites and treated with the two anticoagulants to determine whether statistically significant variation occurred. No significant difference in the grouped values was observed when venipuncture sites (ear and radial vein) were compared using the same anticoagulant (heparin). However, when comparing different anticoagulants (EDTA and heparin) used to collect blood from the radial vein, the grouped-heparinized samples had higher mean PCV and TP values than did the EDTA-treated samples. These differences may be important when performing serial sampling in a sick rhinoceros and suggest that the choice of anticoagulant should be consistent, although selection of venipuncture site may be less important when monitoring selected hematologic values in black rhinoceroses.     

Thyroid cystadenoma, colloid goiter, and hypothyroidism in an American black bear (Ursus americanus).

A 178-kg, 14-yr-old captive female American black bear (Ursus americanus) was examined because of lethargy, inappetance, obesity, and alopecia. Serum chemistry and complete blood count values were within normal limits. Based on serum levels for total thyroxine (T4), free T4 by equilibrium dialysis (fT4ED), and canine thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations, using assays validated for domestic dogs, hypothyroidism was diagnosed presumptively, and therapy with levothyroxine sodium (0.022 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d.) was initiated. Haircoat, body weight, appetite, and activity level improved within 30 days. The levothyroxine dose was decreased twice (to 0.018 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d. and then to 0.011 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d.) during the course of treatment based on monitoring of serum T4 and fT4ED concentrations. After euthanasia for severe refractory lameness, postmortem examination revealed bilateral thyroid lobe enlargement and a fluid-filled cyst within the right lobe. Histologically, colloid goiter was present in both lobes, and a follicular cystadenoma had replaced one third of the cranial pole of the right lobe. The goiter and cystadenoma likely contributed to the hypothyroid condition in this bear and fT4ED was a more sensitive indicator of hypothyroidism than was T4. The recommended canine dosage of levothyroxine may be too high for the treatment of hypothyroidism in American black bears; 0.011 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d. may be a more appropriate dosage.     

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to quantitate serum ferritin in black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata).

Lemurs in captivity progressively accumulate iron deposits in a variety of organs (hemosiderosis) including duodenum, liver, and spleen throughout their lives. When excessive, the toxic effects of intracellular iron on parenchymal cells, particularly the liver, can result in clinical disease and death. The pathogenesis of excessive iron storage in these species has been attributed to dietary factors related to diets commonly fed in captivity. Tissue iron stores can be directly estimated by tissue biopsy and histologic examination, or quantitated by chemical analysis of biopsy tissue, However, expense and risk associated with anesthesia and surgery prevent routine use of tissue biopsy to assess iron status. A noninvasive means of assessing total body iron stores is needed to monitor iron stores in lemurs to determine whether dietary modification is preventing excessive iron deposition, and to monitor potential therapies such as phlebotomy or chelation. Serum ferritin concentration correlates with tissue iron stores in humans, horses, calves, dogs, cats, and pigs. Serum ferritin is considered the best serum analyte to predict total body iron stores in these species and is more reliable than serum iron or total iron binding capacity, both of which may be affected by disorders unrelated to iron adequacy or excess including hypoproteinemia, chronic infection, hemolytic anemia, hypothyroidism, renal disease, and drug administration. We have developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure serum ferritin in lemurs. The assay uses polyclonal rabbit anti-human ferritin antibodies in a sandwich arrangement. Ferritin isolated from liver and spleen of a black and white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata) was used as a standard. Ferritin standards were linear from 0 to 50 microg/L. Recovery of purified ferritin from lemur serum varied from 95% to 110%. The within-assay variability was 4.5%, and the assay-to-assay variability for three different samples ranged from 10% to 17%. The assay also measures serum ferritin in several other lemur species.