Locust Plagues and the Dieldrin Controversy

Abstract

The accepted strategy for the control of locust plagues is to check an upsurge of population before swarms break out and start a widespread plague. The organisation, men and materials necessary for this work must be established before locust plagues are imminent. Primary targets for control are the hoppers. Red locust hoppers can be efficiently controlled only by vegetation baiting with dieldrin. The ULV drift-spraying method of application is particularly successful. Objections to the use of dieldrin on environmental grounds have been put forward but are without substance when the recommended method is used. A small aircraft can blanket spray 5,000 ha/h using the ultra low dosages necessary for desert locust hoppers. Three such aircraft could cope with the area of red locust hopper outbreaks although the dosage necessary for these is likely to be higher in the denser vegetation of their habitat. Field trials to establish the lowest dosage rate for red locust hoppers are urgently required.

If the facilities and resources needed to control locust plagues are not made available, it is hoped that FAO will provide expert teams to survey the economic and social effects of a locust plague, by investigation on the spot, so that responsibility can be assigned and an accurate history can be drawn up for the guidance of future governments. At the present time, governments have the choice of providing what is needed in the confident expectation of preventing plagues, or providing too little or nothing which will, sooner or later, inevitably lay a plague on their doorsteps.     

主要蝗虫生态治理策略在我国的实践应用

蝗灾是全球性的重大自然灾害.20世纪末,由于全球气候变化和人类对自然资源的不合理开发利用,蝗灾呈持续加重趋势.2020年初,沙漠蝗Schistocerca gregaria大面积暴发,席卷了从西非到东非、从西亚至南亚的20多个国家,给农牧业生产带来巨大损失,严重威胁全球粮食安全.高效、长久的控制蝗灾成为人类面临的一个重...     

中国特色蝗灾治理技术体系及应用成效

中国有数千年蝗灾发生为害的历史,建国初期在政府的组织领导下,在科研人员和广大群众的努力下,提出并实施了“改治并举”的策略,改造东亚飞蝗发生基地近2/3,同时大规模使用化学农药进行防治,初步形成了以改造蝗虫发生基地为特色的蝗灾治理技术体系,经过长期实践,蝗灾得到有效遏制,保障了我国粮食生产安全和社会稳定,取得了世界瞩目的成绩。自20世纪80年代起,随着利用蝗虫微孢子虫Nosema locustae和绿僵菌Metarhizium spp.等微生物的治蝗技术获得突破性进展,我国已经形成了以生态控制（改造蝗虫发生基地）为基础,以生物防治为核心,以信息技术为辅助的具有中国特色的蝗灾治理技术体系,并走在国际前列。该技术体系的长期大规模应用,不但在有效防治蝗灾保障我国粮食安全生产、避免大规模使用化学农药造成环境污染和生态失衡等方面发挥了重大作用,而且也在支援国际蝗灾治理中做出了贡献。最后对未来蝗灾治理的关键问题和发展方向进行了探讨。     

蝗虫综合防控技术研究进展

蝗灾是世界性生物灾害,给农牧业生产造成巨大经济损失.2020年初沙漠蝗Schistocerca gregaria再次暴发,严重影响自然生态系统和社会经济的发展.进入21世纪以来,蝗虫防治的新技术和新策略不断发展.本文概述了我国蝗虫主要成灾种类、分布及其危害,总结了近年来蝗虫监测预警及防控技术相关研究进展,重点介绍了以生...     

中国蝗虫学研究60年

蝗虫灾害是人类历史上三大自然灾害之一,对农牧业、环境和经济构成严重威胁。我国是世界上遭受蝗灾最严重的国家之一,有关蝗虫学的研究有较长的历史。60年前,通过改治结合,我国控制了大规模的飞蝗Locusta migratoria蝗灾发生,取得了举世瞩目的成就。60年过去了,中国蝗虫学研究发生了翻天覆地的变化。该文主要综述了最近60年中国蝗虫学研究的发现与创新,展示蝗虫分类学、生态学、生殖与发育生物学、分子生物学、基因组学研究以及蝗虫控制技术研究等多个方面的成就。这些研究成果是世界昆虫学研究的重要组成部分。特别是近30年,我国科学家深入揭示蝗虫两型转变的遗传和表观遗传机制,在国际上产生了重要影响。飞蝗的综合生物学研究积累使飞蝗成为继果蝇之后又一个昆虫模式系统。更重要的是,我国科学家开发的真菌生物农药和群聚信息素可以作为重要的防治手段用于蝗灾的治理。     

The desert locust,Schistocerca gregaria,and its control in the land of israel and the near east in antiquity,with some reflections on its appearance in Israel in modern times

Locusts and grasshoppers have caused periodic devastations since the very beginning of recorded history and are a threat worldwide until this very day. The most feared of all locusts was (and is) the desert locust,Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk.) (’arbeh’). This review deals with different aspects of man’s interaction with this pest in the Mediterranean and Near East regions as reflected by ancient literature: decorations found in Egyptian tombs (6th Dynasty, 2420-2270 B.C.), in the Har-ra=Hubullu list (Assyria — the Ashurbanipal Royal Library, 669-626 B.C.) and in Biblical, Rabbinical, Greek and Roman literature. The aspects covered herein are those of locust nomenclature, terms used for the development stages (life cycle), outbreaks, plagues and their consequences (famine), locusts as food, etc. Some control measures during Biblical, Grecian, Roman, Mishnaic, Talmudic, Byzantine and modern times (19th and 20th Centuries) are reviewed. Nowadays, the total area invaded during desert locust outbreaks and plagues extends over 29 million square kilometers of desert and subdesert, involving more than 60 nations. Between plagues the ’natural’ locust population occupies an area of approximately 14 million square kilometers of desert and subdesert. An attempt is made to identify various terms for locust in the pre-Biblical, Biblical, Rabbinical, Greek and Roman literature according to modern nomenclature.     

植物对蝗虫行为及种群的调控作用

蝗虫食性广,取食量大,对植物的破坏作用极大.植物不仅是蝗虫食物的直接来源,还为其提供栖息场所,对蝗虫个体行为和种群动态均有重要影响.植物挥发物和次生代谢物质对蝗虫的取食、求偶、繁殖、产卵行为和个体生长发育等具有明显的调控作用.植被覆盖度能够直接影响蝗群的聚集度和迁移距离,同时蝗虫对产卵地的植被覆盖度也有严格要求,特别对...     

我国及毗邻国家重要蝗虫迁飞规律

蝗虫灾害是国际性的自然生物灾害,涉及多个国家和地区,大发生时对全球经济和环境造成严重影响。该文列举出中国及毗邻国家对我国产生影响的主要迁飞蝗虫种类,分析东亚飞蝗Locusta migratoria manilensis(Meyen)、亚洲飞蝗Locusta migratoria migratoria(L.)、西藏飞蝗Locusta migratoria tibetensis Chen、亚洲小车蝗Oedaleus asiaticus(Bey-Bienko)、意大利星翅蝗Calliptamus italicus(L.)和黄脊竹蝗Ceracris kiangsu Tsai共6种重要蝗虫种群的迁飞动态,重点介绍境外蝗虫入境的迁飞路线,揭示蝗虫主要借助低空气流进行迁飞,发现群居型蝗虫迁飞现象普遍存在,迁飞是导致其猖獗为害、暴发成灾的重要因子,并就如何开展迁飞蝗虫监测和防治工作提出建议。     

Baseline susceptibility of spotted wing Drosophila (Drosophila suzukii) to four key insecticide classes

BACKGROUND

The invasive drosophilid pest, Drosophila suzukii Matsumura, is affecting berry production in most fruit‐producing regions of the world. Chemical control is the dominant management approach, creating concern for insecticide resistance in this pest. We compared the insecticide susceptibility of D. suzukii populations collected from conventional, organic or insecticide‐free blueberry sites.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of D. suzukii to malathion and spinetoram declined slightly across the 3 years of monitoring, whereas it was more consistent for methomyl and zeta‐cypermethrin. The sensitivity of D. suzukii to all four insecticides (LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values) did not differ significantly among the blueberry fields using different management practices.

CONCLUSIONS

The baseline sensitivity of D. suzukii has been characterized, allowing future comparisons if field failures of chemical control are reported. The concentration achieving high control indicates that effective levels of control can still be achieved with field rates of these four insecticides. However, declining susceptibility of some populations of D. suzukii to some key insecticides highlights the need for resistance monitoring. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

The implications of spatially variable pre‐emergence herbicide efficacy for weed management

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of pre‐emergence herbicides within fields is spatially variable as a consequence of soil heterogeneity. We quantified the effect of soil organic matter on the efficacy of two pre‐emergence herbicides, flufenacet and pendimethalin, against Alopecurus myosuroides and investigated the implications of variation in organic matter for weed management using a crop–weed competition model.

RESULTS

Soil organic matter played a critical role in determining the level of control achieved. The high organic matter soil had more surviving weeds with higher biomass than the low organic matter soil. In the absence of competition, surviving plants recovered to produce the same amount of seed as if no herbicide had been applied. The competition model predicted that weeds surviving pre‐emergence herbicides could compensate for sublethal effects even when competing with the crop. The ED50 (median effective dose) was higher for weed seed production than seedling mortality or biomass. This difference was greatest on high organic matter soil.

CONCLUSION

These results show that the application rate of herbicides should be adjusted to account for within‐field variation in soil organic matter. The results from the modelling emphasised the importance of crop competition in limiting the capacity of weeds surviving pre‐emergence herbicides to compensate and replenish the seedbank. © 2017 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

内蒙古草原牧鸡治蝗效果

我国在牧鸡治蝗的技术规范和治蝗效果上取得了很大的进步,但关于牧鸡轮牧周期对牧鸡治蝗效果方面的研究较少。本研究通过调查牧鸡治蝗期间鸡群的采食量和补饲用量、地面可食蝗虫质量,采取控制牧鸡半径的手段,利用倒推法对理论轮牧周期和治蝗面积进行了研究。结果表明,在固定半径为150 m的轮牧面积内,随着虫口密度的降低,单位鸡群的轮牧周期呈现升高趋势,虫口密度在30头/m²时的轮牧周期高达7.8 d,以90 d为一个防治周期计算,其防治周期的轮牧次数为11次,单位鸡群（每1000只定义为1个单位鸡群）的理论控制面积为77.77 hm²,折合每只牧鸡一个防治周期的理论控制面积为0.08 hm²,并且随着虫口密度的降低,理论控制面积呈现升高趋势。本研究为内蒙古草原牧鸡治蝗工作的开展提供了重要的理论支撑。     

Genomics-based approaches to screening carboxylesterase-like genes potentially involved in malathion resistance in oriental migratory locust (Locusta migratoria manilensis)

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have indicated that increased caboxylesterase (CarE) activity is a major mechanism of malathion resistance in field populations of the oriental migratory locust, Locusta migratoria manilensis (Meyen), in China. The aim of the present study was to screen CarE‐like genes from a large locust expressed sequence tag (EST) database and to assess their potential roles in malathion resistance. RESULTS: Twenty‐five ESTs derived from different CarE‐like genes in the locust EST database were identified, and 12 candidate genes with significantly increased expressions, ranging from 2.6‐ to 11.6‐fold in a field‐derived resistant (FR) colony of the locust, were found. These candidate genes were constitutively expressed in all nymph and adult stages, and most of them were predominantly expressed in the gastric caeca and the midgut. Among the 12 genes, two representative genes (LmCarE9 and LmCarE25) were chosen for RNAi followed by malathion bioassay. The nymph mortalities increased from 34.3 to 65.2 and 54.2% respectively after LmCarE9 and LmcarE25 were silenced. These results indicated significant roles of these CarE‐like genes in conferring malathion resistance in the locust. CONCLUSION: Multiple CarE‐like genes were involved in malathion resistance in the locust. As validated by RNAi followed by malathion bioassay, LmCarE9 and LmcarE25 played a significant role in conferring malathion resistance. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Insecticide co‐formulated mixtures

Specific scope

This standard provides guidance for the justification for using insecticide co‐formulated mixtures, their potential advantages and disadvantages, plus an examination of the appropriateness of such mixtures in terms of resistance management. Based on these issues, a series of principles have been drawn up to form the regulatory framework for the decision making process in considering the approval of such mixtures. These principles should also act as a guide for trial design and the type of data required.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2012–09.     

Semiochemicals to enhance herbivory by Diorhabda carinulata aggregations in saltcedar (Tamarix spp.) infestations

BACKGROUND

Semiochemicals for monitoring, attracting or repelling pest and beneficial organisms are increasingly deployed in agricultural and forest systems for pest management. However, the use of aggregation pheromones and host‐plant attractants for the express purpose of increasing the efficacy of classical biological control agents of weeds has not been widely reported. Therefore, we conducted field‐based assays to determine if a specialized wax‐based matrix impregnated with an aggregation pheromone of the northern tamarisk beetle Diorhabda carinulata (Desbrochers) or host‐plant volatiles could increase the efficacy of D. carinulata.

RESULTS

The aggregation pheromone and host‐plant volatiles were formulated for field application using a wax‐based matrix. Reported release rates suggest that this matrix is a viable formulation for enhancing D. carinulata aggregations under field conditions. Pheromone‐treated saltcedar plants (Tamarix spp.) not only had higher densities of adult and larval D. carinulata, but also sustained greater levels of foliar damage than control plants. Increased damage from the focused feeding of D. carinulata caused an increase in foliar dieback and decrease in live canopy volume of semiochemical‐treated plants.

CONCLUSION

Field deployment of these semiochemical formulations could be useful in directing populations of D. carinulata for increased impact on Tamarix spp. © 2018 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

The impact of restrictions on neonicotinoid and fipronil insecticides on pest management in maize,oilseed rape and sunflower in eight European Union regions

BACKGROUND

In 2013, the European Commission restricted the use of three neonicotinoids (clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam) and the pyrazole fipronil, which are widely used to control early‐season pests. Here, we used original farm survey data to examine the impact of the restrictions on pest management practices in eight regional case studies including maize, oilseed rape and sunflower in seven European Union (EU) countries.

RESULTS

In four case studies, farmers switched to using untreated seeds as no alternative seed treatments were available. In three case studies, farmers switched to using unrestricted neonicotinoid‐ or pyrethroid‐treated seeds. In five case studies, farmers increased the use of soil or foliar treatments, with pyrethroids as the principal insecticide class. Other changes in pest management practices ranged from increased sowing density to more frequent scouting for pests. Many farmers perceived that the time, cost and amount of insecticides required to protect crops increased, along with pest pressure. Alternative seed treatments were mostly perceived as being less effective than the restricted seed treatments.

CONCLUSION

Farmers generally relied on alternative seed treatments or more soil/foliar treatments in the first growing season after the restrictions took effect. Further study is required to assess the effectiveness and sustainability of these alternatives compared with the restricted insecticides. © 2017 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Assessment of the socio-economic impacts associated with the arrival of apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) in Mwea irrigation scheme,Kenya

Background

In Kenya, rice (Oryza sativa L.) is mainly produced under irrigation by small-scale farmers. Mwea irrigation scheme (MIS) in Kirinyaga County accounts for 80–88% of rice production. Here, rice is the main source of livelihood and a source of revenue generation for the county. However, a recently established invasive freshwater snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) (family: Ampullariidae), a species of apple snail, presents a serious threat to rice production.

Results

Household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews highlight apple snail as a serious problem in MIS. Households that observed at least a moderate level of infestation (>20% of cultivated area) experienced significant reductions in rice yield (~14%) and net rice income (~60%). Farmers reported increased use of chemical pesticides for management of apple snail. In addition, the cost of hired labor for physical removal of egg masses and snails is resulting in substantial negative effects on net income. Farmer age, area of land owned, responsibility for decision-making, receipt of extension advice, training, and membership of a farmer organization, were all statistically significant variables to explain farmers awareness of the need for area-wide apple snail management.

Conclusion

Strategies to limit the spread of apple snail are urgently needed. A Multi-Institutional Technical Team (MITT) has been established to spearhead management efforts and consolidate advice to farmers on how to manage apple snail. However, without action to mitigate spread, the consequences could be disastrous for rice production and food security in Kenya, and for other rice growing regions across Africa. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Dihydrooxadiazines: Octopaminergic system as a potential site of insecticidal action

Dihydrooxadiazines are structural analogs of octopamine and were compared with octopamine for their ability to compete with [³H]dihydroergocryptine ([³H]DHE) for binding sites on DHE-sensitive receptors, to stimulate adenylate cyclase activity in nervous system homogenates of Periplaneta americana L., and to modulate the action of the peptide proctolin on the oviducal muscles of Locusta migratoria L. [³H]DHE binding was inhibited by low concentrations (μM range) of octopamine, phentolamine, N-demethylchlordimeform (DCDM) and several dihydrooxadiazines. The tested dihydrooxadiazines acted as aminergic agonists in stimulating cyclic AMP production in cockroach nervous system homogenates and did not show additive effects with octopamine, whereas additivity was observed with 5-hydroxytryptamine. The relative potency of octopaminergic antagonists, including mianserin, cyproheptadine, phentolamine, and gramine, to block octopamine-mediated elevation of cyclic AMP production was similar to the rank-order potency of the same antagonists to inhibit dihydrooxadiazine-mediated elevation of cyclic AMP production. Octopamine, 2-(4-bromophenyl)-5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3,4-oxadiazine (4-Br-PDHO), and 8-Br-cyclic AMP caused increased phosphorylation of proteins that are phosphorylated by exogenously added cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. These results indicate that the dihydrooxadiazine-induced rise in cyclic AMP levels in homogenates of the cockroach nervous system results directly in activation of an endogenous cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. 4-Br-PDHO behaved similarly to octopamine in modulating the action of proctolin-induced contractions in locust oviducal muscles. These observations suggest that dihydrooxadiazines act as octopamine agonists and have an octopaminergic action in modulating the action of proctolin. Thus, it is proposed that dihydrooxadiazines exert at least part of their insecticidal and miticidal actions through interaction with the octopaminergic system.     

Factors driving public tolerance levels and information‐seeking behaviour concerning insects in the household environment

BACKGROUND

The public's negative attitudes towards household insects drive tolerance for these insects and their control. Tolerance levels are important in integrated pest management (IPM), as are pest knowledge and information. The risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model describes the relationships between personal factors and information‐seeking behaviour. We combined IPM and RISP to determine important relationships between factors driving insect tolerance levels and information‐seeking behaviour through an online survey and tested whether this model is valid and generally applicable.

RESULTS

Relationships between variables from both IPM and RISP models were tested for seven insect species. Tolerance levels were measured with two factors: willingness to pay for pest control and whether insects are tolerated. Willingness to pay for control was positively affected by age, experience, risk perception, insect characteristics, and negative emotions and affected behavioural intention, by influencing information sufficiency and information‐seeking behaviour. Tolerability was influenced by perception of insect characteristics and determines whether control measures are taken.

CONCLUSION

It was possible to combine the RISP and IPM models. Relevant driving factors were a person's age, experience, risk perception, negative affective responses, tolerance levels, relevant channel beliefs about online forums, information sufficiency and information‐seeking behaviour. There was, however, variation in important factors between different insects. © 2017 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Potato spindle tuber viroid on potato

Specific scope

This standard describes a national regulatory control system for Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) that provides guidance on preventing its introduction, surveillance for the pathogen and its containment and eradication if found infecting potato plants or tubers.

Specific approval and amendment

First approved in 2011‐09.     

PM 9/25 (1) Bactericera cockerelli and ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’

Specific scope

This Standard describes a national regulatory control system for Bactericera cockerelli and the bacterial pathogen ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ the cause of zebra chip disease in potato. The scope is as follows:

• Exclusion from the EPPO region of B. cockerelli an efficient vector of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ within solanaceous crops (e.g. potato, tomato)
• Eradication of incursions of B. cockerelli
• Exclusion from the EPPO region of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ haplotypes A and B. Although reference will only be made to haplotypes A and B, the Standard would also apply to new non‐European haplotypes of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ which may have different host ranges, or which may be vectored more efficiently by psyllids which are widespread in the region.

The reduction of the risk of spreading ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ haplotypes C, D and E to potato production systems and potatoes being moved within the EPPO region may be recommended in future when more information is available but is not covered in this Standard.

Specific approval

First approved in 2017‐09.