Conservation of Lepidoptera in the United States

The need to conserve United States populations of Lepidoptera has been recognised for a century, but intensive programmes to do so have only recently come into being. The evolution of the butterfly and moth conservation movement in the United States is followed from the earliest instances to the present state of progress. The origin and growth of the Xerces Society as the chief body for terrestrial arthropod conservation in America are described. Currently, ecological research and political action aimed at specific lepidopteran protection issues are under way. Several of these are examined and the most acute needs for further study and action indicated. Habitat alteration emerges dramatically as the chief problem in the decline of butterfly and moth populations. The relative importance of pesticides and overcollecting is discussed and reinforces the conclusion that the habitat is paramount. Introductions of organisms for purposes of conservation likewise receive consideration, showing this strategy to be problematical and subject to careful review prior to its use. The various levels of government as well as private bodies and individuals have distinct roles in insect conservation. Greater public awareness of beneficial insects must precede optimal effectiveness of conservation schemes. The appointment of an official federal insect conservator is announced along with his initial proposal for endangered species listings for certain North American butterflies. The prognosis for a national programme is suggested. Lepidoptera conservation in the United States has become a fully fledged movement with numerous successes and with many difficult problems to face. The situation is viewed with immediate alarm but cautious long-term optimism as well.     

Mortality and morbidity in agriculture in the United States

This article summarizes the trends in agricultural injuries and illnesses in the past decade, as well as the needs for surveillance in the future. Agriculture is one of the most hazardous industries in the U.S. The fatality rate in agriculture remained high (about 22/100,000 workers) through the 1990s. and tractors remained the leading source of death, causing approximately 300 fatalities each year. Non-fatal injuries and illnesses decreased in the employed agricultural worker population. There are no adequate injury and illness data for self-employed farmers and family members to show trends over time. The reported injury rates have been 0.5 to 16.6/100 workers, based on the source of information. Many studies have shown high rates of respiratory and musculoskeletal symptoms, hearing loss, and skin disorders in agriculture. The overall cancer rate is lower; however, certain cancers are elevated in farmers. Surveillance information has not improved significantly in the past decade; however, many studies have provided more insight into the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for injury and illness. Further efforts are needed to better define the populations at risk, including farmers and ranchers, family members, workers, migrant and seasonal workers, and others exposed to farm hazards. Fatalities are well documented, and it is important to continue existing surveillance in the future. Surveillance systems should be developed to collect information on agriculture-related non-fatal injuries and illnesses.     

Acid rain deposition patterns in the continental United States

Acid rain has become a major environmental concern, the current extent of which is illustrated in this paper. Maps of both pH and H⁺ deposition in precipitation have been developed for the continental United States by analyzing laboratory pH data from nine precipitation chemistry networks and two single stations spread across the continental United States and southern Canada during the late 1970's. Average laboratory pH values were obtained or calculated for approximately 100 stations, and isopleths of weighted mean pH and mean annual H+ deposition in precipitation were drawn. Results of this analysis show that in spite of a wide variety of collection methods and sampling intervals, there is remarkable uniformity in the average pH among the various stations. The northeastern United States continues to exhibit the most acidic precipitation, with remaining portions of the eastern United States, states along the western coastline and a pocket in central Colorado also experiencing acid precipitation.     

Impacts of mercury contamination in the southeastern United States

Mercury (Hg) contamination from a variety of point and non-point sources, including atmospheric inputs, is currently considered to be the most serious environmental threat to the well being of fish and wildlife resources in the southeastern United States. Fish consumption advisories have been issued in all ten states comprising the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Southeast Region. Both freshwater and marine species have been affected with levels ranging as high as 7.0 ppm in some individuals. Many other species, including various species of reptiles, birds and mammals (including humans) are also contaminated. Impacts noted range from reproductive impairment to mortality.     

Perchlorate in the feed-dairy continuum of the southwestern United States

Perchlorate has the potential to cause thyroid dysfunction by inhibiting iodide uptake by the sodium iodide symporter. Perchlorate-contaminated waters may lead to human exposure through drinking water and food chain transfer in crops by way of irrigation water. Perchlorate has been found in dairy milk collected nationally and internationally. This study was conducted to evaluate perchlorate in the feed-dairy continuum in the southwestern United States. All feed products collected at dairies in this study had detectable levels of perchlorate as analyzed by ion chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The calculated total perchlorate intake across dairies ranged from 1.9 to 12.7 mg/cow per day. The variation in total perchlorate intake across dairies was largely associated with variation in forage and silage products. Alfalfa products were the single most important source of perchlorate intake variability among dairies. The estimated perchlorate intake from drinking water ranged from 0.01 mg per cow per day and was generally less than 2% of the total perchlorate intake. The perchlorate content of milk ranged from 0.9 to 10.3 microg/L and was similar to levels reported by the Food and Drug Administration's Total Diet Study. The perchlorate content of milk was significantly related to the presence of perchlorate in feed but the variation of perchlorate in milk could not be explained by feed intake alone.     

Development of Soil Taxonomy in the United States of America

Soil Taxonomy was developed primarily for the practical purpose of supporting the National Cooperative Soil Survey Program in the United States. The previous system of classification was limited in its usefulness and could not be applied consistently by a large cadre of soil scientists with diverse levels of skill and experience. The first edition of Soil Taxonomy, published in 1975, was developed under the leadership of Dr. Guy Smith over a period of about 25 years. The magnitude and complexity of the information favored the use of a hierarchical system presented as a key for consistent application. Operational definitions were used to identify taxonomic limits and diagnostic horizons and features, so that each taxon conveyed the same meaning to every user. The application of Soil Taxonomy had several important impacts on the soil survey program in the United States. The emphasis on objective, measurable diagnostic horizons and features to define classes made all competent soil scientists, regardless of experience and rank, equally capable of accurately and consistently classifying soils. The use of quantitative class differentia improved the quantity and quality of the field data collection. The property ranges of soil series and their geographic distribution have generally been narrowed over time, thus, allowing more precise interpretations to be made. Soil Taxonomy has benefited the soil correlation process by grouping the nearly 22 000 series currently established in the United States in ways that allow us to efficiently compare and differentiate competing soil series and coordinates their use among survey areas. After publication in 1975, Soil Taxonomy was further refined through the work of nine international committees and many individuals. This work culminated in the publication of the second edition in 1999 and, most recently, the 9th edition of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy in 2003. Today, two international committees are considering revisions to the moisture and temperature regimes and improvements to the classification of anthropogenic soils. Published in Russian in Pochvovedenie, 2006, No. 2, pp. 161–167. This article was submitted by the authors in English.     

Phosphorus management for sustainable biosolids recycling in the United States

Land-based recycling of processed sewage sludge (biosolids) has traditionally been challenged by concerns over metals, organics, pathogens, odors, and public perception. Nutrient concerns, however, portend even greater challenges, and threaten land application programs in the US. Long-term application of biosolids results in accumulation of soil phosphorus (P) above concentrations needed for optimum crop yields. Water quality impairment associated with accelerated eutrophication is driving the US states to adopt policies and laws to reduce P losses to surface waters from agricultural land. Nearly all states have developed site assessment tools (P indices) to rank fields based on their vulnerability to P loss and to target remedial strategies. Biosolids have not been systematically addressed in most states and sustaining economical biosolids recycling programs will be difficult if policies fail to consider certain critical issues. Soil test P benchmarks should be based upon environmental P loss risk rather than crop response. Policies must recognize the role of mandated buffers in protecting surface water quality. Site indices must account for the sizable differences in P loss potential among biosolids types compared to mineral fertilizers and livestock manures. Finally, agronomic rate calculations must recognize different P fertilizer replacement values among biosolids products. Deployment of P management regulations for biosolids lacking scientifically defensible strategies in these areas will adversely affect land-based recycling. Sustainability requires additional research and intentional inclusion of biosolids in implementation of evolving P management policies.     

Conservation tillage systems and their adoption in the United States

Conservation benefits of conservation tillage had been developed long before the production disadvantages were removed. Even though, in some cases, there are still production disadvantages and lower yields, compared to conventional tillage, conservation tillage is attractive to farmers primarily because of the potential for reduced production costs; conservation benefits are of secondary interest in most cases even though they accrue from the use of conservation tillage. This farmer interest in cost reduction will most certainly guide research inputs. Surveys of farmers have shown that more emphasis must be placed on all of the technology needed for a production system. In order to avoid financially-disastrous consequences, associated risk assessments are even required during the adoption period, i.e., the period when conservation tillage is replacing the conventional tillage.When a conservation-tillage-planting system is defined rigorously, based on the requirement that at least 30% of the surface should be covered with crop residue, the adoption averages about 25% of the cropland in the United States. Nine tillage management regions (TMR) in the United States were delineated based on climate, adapted crops and cropping systems. Adoption of conservation-tillage-planting systems ranged widely from 22 to 45% of the cropland in a TMR. Full-width systems such as mulch till, in which the whole field is tilled, were used much more than partial-width systems such as no-till, ridge till and strip till in which only strips are tilled. Adoption of these forms of conservation tillage are sensitive to the dominant-cropping systems in a TMR. Variations in adoption were often well related to the problems and benefits discussed by research on tillage-planting systems in the TMR.     

Factors Affecting the Use of Conservation Tillage in the United States

Conservation tillage was used on nearly 36% of planted hectares in 1996 in the U.S. This level has remained relatively unchanged since 1991. The use of conservation tillage varies by crop and is dependent on site-specific factors including soil sype, topsoil depth, and local climate conditions. A number of economic, demographic, geographic, and policy factors have affected the adsorption of conservation tillage. While it is not possible to quantify exactly the impact of these factors, it is clear that management complexities and profitability are key factors impeding the further adsorption of conservation tillage.     

酒糟等农业废弃物的堆肥化及水稻育秧基质研发

本试验旨在以农业有机废弃物酒糟为主要原料,制成高效水稻育秧基质。首先,以酒糟配合小麦秸秆、菇渣进行发酵腐熟试验,得到腐熟基质原料。然后,以蛭石、珍珠岩为辅料制成不同配比的基质进行水稻育秧试验,筛选高效水稻育秧基质。结果表明,通过堆肥发酵得到的腐熟堆肥,可作为水稻育秧基质的原料,以(酒糟+秸秆)堆肥60%+蛭石30%+珍珠岩10%(T6)处理的综合效果最好,其在水稻幼苗的株高,全氮、磷、钾含量,根系活力等方面显著优于市售商品基质(T8)处理,分别比T8处理增加13.94%、12.68%、24.62%、5.77%、15.78%,是较理想的水稻育秧基质。     

Survey of dioxin-like compounds in dairy feeds in the United States

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has completed a survey of dioxin-like compounds (including 17 dioxin and furan (CDD/F) congeners and 12 coplanar polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) congeners) in dairy feeds from 10 dairy research facilities around the United States, sampling the overall mixtures and the major and minor feed components. Low levels of dioxin were found in all feed mixtures with an average concentration of 0.05 pg/g (ppt) toxic equivalent (TEQ) dry weight. This is lower than previously found in dairy feeds by about a factor of 4. While it is possible that generally lower levels of dioxins in the environment in recent years may explain this result, examinations of the data suggest that the oven drying used to prepare the wet feed samples could have resulted in a loss of dioxins from the feed materials. The percentage of the total TEQ due to CDD/Fs was about four times that of PCBs. Leafy vegetations in the feed (the silages and the hays) had concentrations about twice as high as nonleafy, protected vegetation of the feeds (the ground or meal corn, cottonseed, and others). Minor components did not significantly influence the final feed mixture concentration of dioxin TEQ. However, in one of the feed mixtures, a minor component with a high concentration of 38.5 ppt TEQ effectively doubled the concentration of the overall feed mixture.     

Seventy Years of Research on Waste Composting and Utilization at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station

? The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station in New Haven, established in 1875, is the oldest Experiment Station in the nation. Among the many contributions made by scientists at the Station, the development of hybrid corn by Donald F. Jones, and the discovery of vitamins by Thomas B. Osborne stand as hallmarks of science that have received much attention. Since the early 1920's, two issues have been studied in great detail at this Station; maintenance of soil fertility in New England's nutrient impoverished soil and disposal of agricultural and domestic wastes. Since the solutions to these problems are intertwined, the Station has been examining the time honored custom of returning wastes to soil to improve crop production. Even before the current rejuvenation of composting as an option in waste management, the Station expended considerable effort in composting research and its utilization in agriculture. This is a historical review of these efforts.     

Seasalt and pollution inputs over the continental United States

The average deposition rate of sea salt chloride over the world continents is about 10 meq m^?2 yr^?1. Only about 14 ± 1% of chloride in the pollution-corrected world average river is contributed by seasalt aerosols and the rest from the dissolution of evaporites. The significant increase of the ion concentrations in the Mississippi river from the year 1905 to 1987 was caused by anthropogenic inputs such as fossil fuel burning, common salt consumption, and dissolution of carbonate and silicate rocks by acids derived from acid precipitation.     

Regulatory perspective of pesticide analytical enforcement methodology in the United States

A critical overview is presented of the current regulatory problems encountered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in evaluating the adequacy of pesticide analytical enforcement methodologies submitted in support of proposed pesticide tolerances. One of these problems is the development and validation of appropriate, adequate enforcement analytical methods which account for all free or bound/conjugated residue components of the "total toxic residue" in the commodities of concern. Also included is a detailed discussion of suggested improvements in the development and validation of these enforcement methods, for example, integrating radiolabeled metabolism studies with the subsequent development and validation of proposed analytical enforcement methodologies. New procedures are proposed to facilitate the availability of analytical methods to enforcement agencies and other organizations during the method validation process. Future initiatives to use the collaborative study process in the development and validation of Pesticide Analytical Manual, Volume 2, enforcement methods for contemporary pesticides are also discussed.     

Towards Excellence in Environmental Education A View from the United States

Within the United States, a nationwide debate has been raging over how to best provide quality education for all learners. Much of this debate, spurred by poor test scores and other measures of achievement, has centered on the development of national, state and local standards and assessments for the core disciplines (e.g., mathematics, science, geography). For the most part, environmental education has been left out of this debate and out of the various standards development initiatives. Whether one agrees philosophically with academic standards or not, these standards are determining what is being taught in the classroom. By 1993, environmental education in the United States found itself in a conundrum. It has always been argued that environmental education should be interdisciplinary, infused throughout the curriculum. However, with the new standards, environmental education was in real danger of becoming marginalized. To address this situation, the North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE) initiated the National Project for Excellence in Environmental Education.     

Policies related to combating desertification in the United States of America

Desertification in the United States of America is very complex and difficult to combat on a continuing basis and on a large scale. It can be due to improper agricultural practices, livestock grazing, mining, fire management, recreation practices, deforestation, urbanization, and introduction of exotic species. Thus, national, state, and local policies must deal with a wide range of circumstances and land uses, and they must be comprehensive and dynamic, providing flexibility as issues, knowledge, and needs change. The United States can demonstrate many causations, but also successes, in combating desertification. However, much more work is needed to assure sustainable use of millions of hectares, particularly in the drylands of the western United States. A vigilance on policies and their implementation is required to assure that efforts to combat desertification are effective. Over time, some policies outlive their purpose and require change, but that is not always easy to achieve, and many times it takes a concentrated effort over several years or more to bring about, especially if that policy has its basis in law. Although this process sometimes seems slow, new laws continue to be enacted and policies are adopted that address land uses and the difficult task of combating desertification. Several examples are offered to show the variety of actions taken and processes used in the United States. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Development and use of soil productivity ratings in the United States

This paper provides historical documentation of major U.S. efforts to develop numerical ratings of soil productivity. Nearly all of these efforts stemmed from needs to compare different soils objectively for purposes of agricultural land use planning and the equalization of land values and tax assessments.Several approaches are described, including U.S.D.A. work following World War I, ratings based solely on crop yield data, Storie's (1933, 1937, 1976) multiplicative factor approaches and the variations that evolved from them, and “Soil property systems” that add, rather than multiply, effects of separate factors. Taken together, these various approaches highlight a large number of soil properties, weather conditions, and crop yield data that need to be considered to develop ratings of soil productivity. They illustrate a variety of techniques for evaluating the effects of soil properties quantitatively and for combining soil factor values into overall soil ratings. Each approach has certain advantages and limitations, and these are discussed throughout. The collective experiences with the development and use of productivity ratings cover a diversity of soil and climatic conditions throughout the United States.