SE–Structures and Environment: Physical Properties of Composting Material: Gas Permeability,Oxygen Diffusion Coefficient and Thermal Conductivity

Composting is one of the oldest bio-technological processes used by human beings. It can be defined as the partial decomposition of heterogeneous organic matter by a mixed microbial population in a moist, warm and aerobic environment. In the organic matter, a dense population of various micro-organisms is found. The micro-organisms use organic matter, minerals, water and oxygen for their growth and metabolic activity. Each microbial species has an optimal temperature at which growth and multiplication rates are maximal. The oxygen concentration plays a dominant role in these processes. To optimize the composting process, the above-mentioned aspects must be known in detail. A simulation model offers an appropriate tool to reach this goal. Such a model must especially describe distributions of temperature and oxygen concentrations because these are considered as the most important process parameters. Reliable results can only be obtained if the physical properties of the composting material are well known under various conditions. In this paper, measurements of gas permeability, oxygen diffusivity, and thermal conductivity of the composting material are presented.Generally it is found that the gas permeability decreases as the gas velocity increases. For raw material, the gas permeability decreases with the wetness, whereas for older material there is no clear relationship. For composting material which has been turned once, the gas permeability is larger than for raw material. The oxygen diffusion coefficient is proportional to the gas-filled volume fraction to the power 1·5. There is no clear relationship between the oxygen diffusion coefficient and the age of the material. It is found that at a given temperature and for volume fractions of solid phase of 0·33 or less, the thermal conductivity increases linearly with the volume fraction of the liquid phase. The thermal conductivity is not influenced by the age of the composting material. The thermal conductivity increases with temperature.     

水文过程及模型研究主要进展

揭示水文过程,发展水文模型不仅在暴雨洪水预报及坝库工程设计等方面具有重要作用,而且也是研发土壤侵蚀物理模型必须的基础性工作。从入渗、产流和汇流等水文物理过程出发,综述了国内外水文过程与水文模型的主要进展,并指出,建立基于GIS的分布式水文过程模型是水文模型研究的趋势。     

Results from the Covered Catchment Experiment at Gårdsjön, Sweden, after Ten Years of Clean Precipitation Treatment

The Covered Catchment Experiment at Gårdsjön is a large scale forest ecosystem manipulation, where acid precipitation was intercepted by a 7000 m² plastic roof and replaced by `clean precipitation' sprinkled below the roof for ten years between 1991 and 2001. The treatment resulted in a strong positive response of runoff quality. The runoff sulphate, inorganic aluminium and base cations decreased, while there was a strong increase in runoff ANC and a moderate increase in pH. The runoff continued to improve over the whole duration of the experiment. The achieved quality was, however, after ten years still considerably worse than estimated pre-industrial runoff at the site. Stable isotopes of sulphur were analysed to study the soil sulphur cycling. At the initial years of the experiment, the desorption of SO₄ from the mineral soil appeared to control the runoff SO₄ concentration. However, as the experiment proceeded, there was growing evidence that net mineralisation of soil organic sulphur in the humus layer was an additional source of SO₄ in runoff. This might provide a challenge to current acidification models. The experiment convincingly demonstrated on a catchment scale, that reduction in acid deposition causes an immediate improvement of surface water quality even at heavily acidified sites. The improvement of the runoff appeared to be largely a result of cation exchange processes in the soil due to decreasing concentrations of the soil solution, while any potential change in soil base saturation seemed to be less important for the runoff chemistry over the short time period of one decade. These findings should be considered when interpreting and extrapolating regional trends in surface water chemistry to the terrestrial parts of ecosystems.     

密云水库不同林地配置下地表水水质状况分析

密云水库是北京市最重要的饮用水水源地,它为北京提供了近70%的生活用水,因此密云水库的水质保护成为了当前迫切需要解决的问题。为此,在密云县太师屯镇建立10个以不同造林模式配置的水源涵养林试验区,并构建径流小区。通过检测各径流小区地表水水质情况,进而找出发挥水文效益最佳的造林模式。运用综合指数法、模糊数学法和灰色关联法对数据进行分析后,得出:不同造林模式对地表水水质的影响很大,2号试验地的油松和黄栌混交林改善水质效果最佳,达到了国家Ⅰ类水标准,其他试验地的改善水质效果不佳,均差于2号试验地。由此可见,油松混交黄栌的造林模式为密云水源林的最佳造林模式,且该混交林树种的成活率均在90%以上,建议进行推广栽植。     

Environmental Impacts of Farm-Scale Composting Practices

Because of its agronomic benefits, farm-scale composting is an efficient means of recycling agricultural waste. Composting process is an aerobic degradation of fresh organic matter in mature compost. Nevertheless, according to the literature, composting may induce some environmental problems. The environmental impacts of composting will be described, along with an assessment of farm-scale composting practices which play a major role in pollution. The main environmental components potentially affected by composting pollution are air and water. Various gases released by composting, such as NH₃, CH₄ and N₂O, can impact air quality and are therefore studied because they all have environmental impacts and can be controlled by composting management. The effect on water quality can be evaluated by considering loss of NO₃ ^-, NH₄ ⁺, organic compounds and PO₄ ^3-. Technical evaluation criteria for the impact of farm-scale composting on the air are determined from the physical and chemical characteristics of the raw materials, the use of additives, the turning method and frequency and the duration of the composting operations. Regarding water, the weather conditions at the beginning of the composting operation, the location of the heap, the protection against rain, the water addition during the process, the use of covers and the recovery of leaching and runoff water are also taken into account. The two main practices which control the air and water pollution from composting are: the choice of the raw material which influences gas emissions and the choice of composting location which have an high effect on losses by leaching and runoff.     

Dust characteristics and source-sink relations in eastern West Africa (SW-Niger and Benin) and South America (Argentinean Pampas)

In order to quantify dust input and to describe its characteristics under different environmental conditions, and to get information on source-sink relation, dust was collected monthly with bulk deposition samplers (open bucket type) in 2 and 4 m height over a 2—3 years period at different sites in West Africa (SW-Niger and Benin) and in the semi-arid Argentinean Pampas. Dust input, mineralogy (bulk and clay), chemical properties including total element content and particle-size distribution showed a clear seasonal pattern in eastern West Africa. Far-transported Saharan dust in the dry season could be distinguished from local material transported in the rainy season. In Argentina, high sand content of the samples pointed to an important participation of local components in the collected material. This was supported by higher contents of seaborne salts at the coastal sites, and the highest amounts of collected dust at the site of highest wind velocities. Due to the lack of seasonal differences in dust amount and its characteristics, and the aeolian genesis of the Pampas soils, a separation of local material and long-range dust was not possible.     

稻壳-鸡粪好氧高温堆肥体系中磷石膏消纳能力的研究

为探究堆肥体系中磷石膏的消纳能力,增加磷石膏资源化利用强度,该研究以稻壳作为主要原料,以鸡粪为辅料,添加基于堆肥有机物料(干质量)的0、10%、20%、30%和40%磷石膏(CK、P10、P20、P30和P40)作为堆肥调理剂,研究其对高温堆肥过程中堆肥的物理、化学、生物指标以及堆肥腐熟后堆料品质性状的影响,从肥料化的角度,探究稻壳-鸡粪堆肥体系中磷石膏的消纳能力。结果表明,相比于CK而言,磷石膏添加量在10%~30%明显促进了堆料温度的快速上升和高温时间,增加堆肥的发酵强度。当磷石膏的添加量超过20%以后,随着磷石膏添加量的增加,堆肥持续高温期的时间有明显减少。添加40%磷石膏处理稀释效应太明显,堆肥结束以后,堆肥的总有机碳的绝对含量较低,导致堆肥产物的有机质含量(34.3%)不达标。添加磷石膏可以提高堆体的种子发芽指数,到堆肥结束时,CK、P10、P20、P30和P40的种子发芽指数分别为65.43%、86.54%、97.52%、81.35%和71.40%。但P40处理到堆肥结束时,水溶性铵态氮含量还高达528.2 mg/kg。与CK处理相比,P10、P20和P30处理的养分含量增加显著,且均符合NY525-2012标准要求。各处理重金属含量均未超过NY525-2012标准的要求,但磷石膏的添加仍有增加堆肥重金属的风险。综合添加磷石膏对堆肥腐熟度的影响和堆肥品质的影响来看,在稻壳为主要原料的堆肥体系中,添加有机物料干质量的30%的磷石膏,是本堆肥体系磷石膏最大的消纳量。     

Estimated Reduction in Solids During Sheep Bedding Composting as a Function of the Composition of the Organic Fractions

The different organic matter fractions of residues significantly impact the degradability of organic material in composting windrows. Based on that, this study aimed to find out the organic matter fractions that most impact the breakdown rate during composting, besides proposing models to estimate the solids reductions in sheep bedding composting windrows. To that end, 24 sheep beddings from different locations and varied composition were composted so as to ensure the representativeness of the sample. The models found for reduction in total (TS) and volatile (VS) solids as a function of compostable organic matter (COM) and organic matter resistant to composting (OMRC) were not significant. Lignin had correlation coefficients of ?0.6, ?0.89, and ?0.84 in relation to temperature, TS reduction, and VS reduction, respectively. The hemicellulose:lignin ratio was the parameter most correlated with temperature (0.69), TS reduction (0.91), VS reduction (0.92), and nitrogen (0.5), which led to more significant predictive models. It can be concluded that the hemicellulose:lignin ratio is the parameter that most impacts the breakdown of organic matter and nitrogen losses in sheep bedding composting windrows.     

适量通风显著降低鸡粪好氧堆肥过程中氮素损失

【目的】研究不同通风量对鸡粪好氧堆肥过程中温度、含水率、种子发芽指数 (GI) 及氮素形态转化的影响，以期在达到鸡粪无害化要求的前提下，为减少鸡粪好氧堆肥过程中的氮素损失、提高堆肥成品品质、优化通风曝气工艺参数和节省能耗提供参考。【方法】试验在山东某有机肥厂好氧堆肥车间开展，以鸡粪和稻壳为原料，按照1∶1(质量比) 混合均匀之后作为堆肥初始物料。在间歇性强制通风和翻抛条件下，设置低、中、高3个通风水平，即通风量依次为0.1、0.2和0.3 m3/(m3·min)，好氧堆肥周期为28 天。通过现场定期采样，测定温度、全氮、NH₄+-N、NO₃–-N、pH、含水率和发芽指数等指标，研究不同堆肥阶段各指标的变化和氮素形态的转化。【结果】在整个好氧堆肥周期内，堆体温度呈现先升高后降低的趋势，低、中和高通风量的最高温度分别达到68.3℃、71.8℃和68.6℃，高温 (≥ 50℃) 持续时间均超过12 天，达到了畜禽粪便无害化卫生要求；含水率逐渐下降，各通风量处理分别由最初的63.2%、62.1%和64.5%降低到32.4%、30.1%和29.2%；pH先升高后降低，至好氧堆肥结束时，各通风处理的pH均处于7.5～8.0 之间；种子发芽指数 (GI) 均大于80%，说明经过28 天的好氧堆肥后，三个通风处理条件下的鸡粪堆肥成品均达到了腐熟度要求。NH₄+-N含量均呈现先增长后逐渐降低的趋势；NO₃–-N含量呈现明显的增加趋势；总氮 (TN) 含量在整个好氧堆肥周期内整体上呈现先降低后增加的趋势；经过28 天的好氧堆肥结束之后，低、中、高通风处理的氮素损失率分别为19.8%、20.2%和29.6%，低通风量与中通风量之间差异不显著，高通风量显著高于低通风量和中通风量 (P ≤ 0.05)。【结论】在鸡粪进行好氧堆肥过程中，通风量为0.1、0.2和0.3 m3/(m3·min) 下，堆肥成品均能达到腐熟度和无害化要求，其中采用中通风量0.2 m3/(m3·min) 时的氮素损失较少，且种子发芽指数较高。综合以上指标及实际工厂化运行过程的影响因素，在鸡粪好氧堆肥过程中建议采用的通风量为0.2 m3/(m3·min)。     

基于模型的上海郊区地下水氮素非点源污染特征研究

农业非点源污染是造成上海郊区地下水污染的主要因素,定量分析预测农业生产过程氮素的迁移转化规律是有效控制地下水污染的重要环节。以上海市浦东新区新场镇果园村的桃园为研究对象,借助生物地球化学过程模型（DNDC）和长期水文影响评价模型（L-THIA）,基于连续观测数据,详细分析了农业生产过程中氮素造成的非点源污染,特别是对周边地表、地下水的影响。结果表明,地表水总氮均值达6.34mg·L-1,远劣于地表水Ⅴ类标准（≤2.0mg·L-1）;地下水中总氮均值达16.85mg·L^-1,远劣于地表水Ⅴ类标准（≤2.0mg·L^-1）。约有20%采样点硝态氮含量属于地下水Ⅴ类（〉30mg·L^-1）。野外检测数据表明,该区地表水、地下水污染均严重超标,不宜饮用。模型分析显示,水体污染源主要来自桃园生产中施用的肥料,其中就模拟结果的数值可以得出,大约年农田氮输入量的1.7%通过土壤径流进入地表水,约3.5%经过土壤渗漏进入地下水,实测地下水中氮含量占桃园总氮输入量的5.8%。因此,合理调整施肥措施和施肥结构是减少土壤-水体中氮素污染的有效途径。     

Evaluating grassed waterway efficiency in southeastern Iowa using WEPP

Properly calibrated, single storm event, model simulations can be valuable quantitative tools for evaluating the effectiveness of grassed waterways (GWWs) and identifying a threshold length for an effective GWW. Current specifications for GWW lengths in Iowa are lacking. The key objective of this study is to employ the well-established Water Erosion Prediction Project model (WEPP) for determining an effective (or threshold) GWW length for reducing runoff and sediment yields under a wide range of hydrologic and management conditions in an agricultural Iowa watershed, namely Clear Creek, IA. The advantage of this physically based, distributed-parameter model is its ability to replicate processes at the hillslope scale where GWW performance is mostly evaluated. Overall, 84 WEPP runs were performed for assessing (i) the effect that GWW length has on reducing runoff and sediment yields within a representative test hillslope, and (ii) the effect of the gradient of the drainage area on GWW efficiency. Results show that the GWW efficiency for all GWW lengths is governed by hydrology, expressed as Q_peak. The results suggest that the threshold length for an effective GWW is 500 m for the hydrologic conditions in this study and for a representative drainage area of approximately 27 ha. For all storm events, a threshold drainage area gradient of approximately 3% was found above which the GWW efficiency was independent of topographic steepness. The results demonstrate similar trends to other studies although the relative increases in reduction in runoff and sediment delivery differ between sites and are very much dictated by Q_peak and hydrologic soil group. The effectiveness of models to evaluate GWW efficiency for nearly saturated conditions and shallow flows is discussed.     

Evaluation of a new composting method in terms of its biodegradation pathway and assessment of compost quality,maturity and stability

The need for scientific composting methods for effective utilization of organic waste is increasing day by day. In this respect, a new process called the Novcom composting method is being increasingly adopted by the organic tea planters of Assam and Darjeeling (India) for large-scale composting. Study of the biodegradation process under this method and quality evaluation of the end product was carried out at Maud tea estate (Assam) during 2008–2009 and 2009–2010. Generation of high temperatures (>65°C) within the compost heap during the biodegradation process provided an indication regarding the destruction of pathogens and weed seeds in the composted material. Samples collected on day 0, 7, 14, 21 and 30 of composting, were analyzed for physicochemical properties, nutrient status, microbial population, stability and phytotoxicity parameters. The most significant finding was the high microbial population (in the order of 10¹⁶ cfu g^?1) in the final product, which was generated naturally during biodegradation. Assessment of the maturity and stability parameters of the compost indicated that biodegradation was complete in ～3 weeks. The study provided an indication of the potential of the Novcom composting method for the production of good quality, stable and mature compost, within a short period.     

黑河流域上游水沙变化特征及成因分析

[目的]研究黑河流域上游干流的水沙时空变化特征及其成因,为流域生态保护和水资源开发利用提供科学依据。[方法]选取黑河上游干流主要水文站近60a的实测径流、输沙及降雨资料,通过采用Mann-Kendall秩相关检验法、累积距平法和相关分析法,研究水沙变化特征及驱动因子。[结果]黑河上游干流径流量总体上从20世纪80年代以后呈增加趋势;输沙量从20世纪70年代开始呈不显著增加趋势,但莺落峡水文站输沙量从2001年开始呈显著下降趋势。[结论]降水增加是影响黑河上游径流量增多的重要原因;水土流失导致了札马什克站和祁连站输沙量的增加,而水库拦沙是莺落峡水文站输沙量显著减少的主要原因。     

Modelling runoff and soil erosion in logged forests: Scope and application of some existing models

Predictive erosion models are useful tools for evaluating the impact of land-use practices on soil and water properties, and as often used by environmental protection authorities, for setting guidelines and standards for regulation purposes. This study examines the application of three erosion models of varying complexity and design for predicting runoff and soil erosion from logged forest compartments in south eastern Australia. These are: the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP), and TOPOG, a physically based hydrologic modelling package. Data on rates of soil loss and redistribution collected during a series of large-scale rainfall simulator experiments were used as model input parameters and validation. The models were evaluated in terms of general ease of use, input data requirements and accuracy of process understanding and prediction. Results suggest that in this application the USLE overestimated soil loss, and have the limitation that it does not predict sediment yield or sediment redistribution for specific storm events. When used at the hillslope scale, WEPP and TOPOG have predicted runoff and soil loss reasonably well, particularly on disturbed surfaces such as skid trails. On less disturbed surfaces such as the general harvesting area, both models performed less accurately, generally under-predicting soil loss and sediment yield, notably on sites with low observed values. The complexity and data requirements of WEPP and TOPOG limit their usability as a general-purpose, erosion hazard predicting tool. In terms of process understanding, none of the existing models accurately depict the nature and extent of sediment redistribution quantified in the rainfall simulator experiments. In order to advance the application and accuracy of modelling tools in forestry environments, this redistribution process should be considered integral to the refinement and redevelopment of future models.     

龙川江上游径流量变化及其对气候变化的响应

基于1970—2012年龙川江上游小河口水文站的径流资料和楚雄的气象资料,运用M-K法、相关系数法、累积距平法等方法,分析了龙川江上游径流量、降水量和气温的年内、年际和年代际的变化以及径流量对气候变化的响应。结果表明:龙川江上游径流量年内分配极不均,在1994年后渐趋均匀,年径流量呈不显著的波动下降趋势,而且径流量在70,80年代和2010—2012年偏枯,90和00年代偏丰;年平均气温和年降水量都呈上升趋势,但后者的趋势不明显;年降水量对年径流量的影响很明显,而年平均气温对径流量的影响较小,四个季节中春季和秋季的径流量受降雨量变化的影响较大,降水量和气温的变化对夏季径流的影响都较为明显,而冬季相反。总之,不同季节的径流量对不同气候因素的响应是不同的。     

Soil microbial biomass along a hydrologic gradient in a subsiding coastal bottomland forest: Implications for future subsidence and sea-level rise

Soil microbial biomass was analyzed in a rapidly subsiding coastal bottomland forest at three sites along an elevation change of ∼1 m and an associated hydrologic gradient of 400 m from rare (ridge site), to occasional (intermediate site), to frequent flooding (swamp site). Given the current rate of relative sea-level rise in this area (subsidence+global mean sea-level rise ∼1.2 cm y⁻¹), this gradient may represent a space-for-time substitution for about one century of future sea-level rise. Along the hydrologic gradient, microbial biomass carbon (MBC) in the upper 20 cm of mineral soil was 157±26 (ridge), 134±14 (intermediate), and 90±20 (swamp) g C m⁻². MBC was positively correlated with soil organic matter (r²=0.76, P=0.002) and the ratio of MBC to soil organic C ranged from 0.008 to 0.017 depending on soil depth and site. Generally, MBC decreased with increasing soil moisture from the ridge to the swamp site. Although MBC was statistically similar overall in the ridge and intermediate sites, the intermediate site had the largest fraction (45%) at 0-5 cm, whereas the ridge site had the largest fraction (40%) below 10-20 cm. Based on a space-for-time substitution model using non-linear regression analysis, we predict that MBC in the upper 20 cm of soil is likely to decrease by about one-third along the transect over the next century as a result of subsidence and sea-level rise.     

Calculating the Reduction in Material Mass And Volume during Composting

Loss of mass and volume during composting of various feedstocks is an important consideration for compost operation management and facility design. Direct measurements of mass and volume in piles and windrows require specialized equipment and skills that render such measurements impractical for most commercial operations. A study was undertaken to develop a technique for calculating reductions in mass and volume during composting based on the change in concentration of an internal standard and bulk density measurements. Of the various physicochemical parameters investigated, nonvolatile solids (NVS) content proved the most reliable internal standard because of its strong inverse correlation with organic C (r² = ?0.95) and low coefficient of variation (CV = 0.15). Reductions in mass and volume during composting of six windrows comprised of various feedstocks were then calculated using initial and final measurements of NVS and bulk density. Reductions in mass averaged 19.4% of initial mass and ranged from 11.5% to 31.4%. Volume reductions were substantially greater than mass losses, and averaged 40.7% of initial volume. Change in mass was used in combination with organic C contents to calculate the loss of organic C. These losses averaged 28.9% and represented an average 46.4% of total mass loss. Equations for calculating reductions in mass, volume and organic C are presented. These equations may be easily modified to calculate the loss of any measured constituent of compost where the initial and final concentrations are known.     

SWAT模型在粤北连江流域的应用研究

选择粤北连江流域为研究区域,以分布式水文模型SWAT作为模拟工具,对流域内的水文过程进行模拟。利用流域内高道、凤凰山和黄麖塘3个水文站2001—2010年的实测月平均径流量进行敏感性分析和参数率定。以2001—2005年作为校准期,2006—2010年作为验证期,以相对误差（Re）、决定系数（R²）以及Nash-Suttcliffe效率系数（Ens）作为模型适用性的评价指标。校准期3个水文站的月径流量模拟值的相对误差分别是2.72%,5.91%,1.63%,决定系数均大于0.9,Nash-Suttcliffe系数分别为0.97,0.89,0.70,而验证期相对误差分别是2.62%,5.36%,9.32%,决定系数均大于0.9,Nash-Suttcliffe系数分别为0.90,0.69,0.69。各项评价指标均符合精度要求,说明SWAT模型可以用于连江流域的径流模拟。     

Evaluation of the Pollutant Content in Road Runoff First Flush Waters

Road runoff waters are able to convey a number of organic and inorganic pollutants originated by different non-point sources and by the road surface itself. Such pollutants can enter aquatic systems, thus contributing to water and soil contamination. This study was aimed at evaluating the pollutant content in first flush runoff waters from a highway located in Central Italy. A water sampling apparatus was devised able to collect only the first 10 L of runoff water. Water samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy, ion chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in order to determine metals, ions, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, respectively. Soil samples were collected as well for metal and hydrocarbon determination. Results obtained in a field experiment carried out in two different seasons and in two different sites along the highway are reported. The study was extended to water samples collected in a strip of the same road not yet in use. Results obtained showed a temporal and a spatial variability due to the different period rainfall and to sites features, respectively. Within such a variability, a substantial agreement, in terms of order of magnitude, with other studies carried out in European sites was observed.     

生物过滤法去除死猪堆肥排放臭气效果的中试

为研究生物过滤法去除死猪堆肥发酵处理过程产生臭气以及挥发性有机物(volatile organic compounds,VOCs)的可行性,开展了死猪和猪粪混合堆肥试验,分析了死猪堆肥过程臭气浓度特性和VOCs组分特征,对生物过滤法去除臭气中VOCs的工艺关键参数-停留时间进行优化试验。死猪堆肥过程中排放VOCs种类达37种,其中主要致臭组分为三甲胺、二甲基硫、二甲基二硫、二甲基三硫;以腐熟猪粪堆肥作为滤料(添加3%活性污泥),在停留时间为30~100 s的条件下,生物过滤法对死猪堆肥排放臭气去除率达90%以上;停留时间60~100 s的条件下对VOCs中主要致臭组分的去除效率达82.2%~100%,生物过滤法去除死猪堆肥过程臭气浓度和VOCs的优化停留时间为60 s。研究结果能为死猪堆肥发酵过程排放臭气的处理和控制技术进一步研发提供科学依据。